Could you ever be truly alone in the woods of ancient Greece or Rome? According to myth, the ancient world was filled with wild animals, terrifying monsters, and mischievous deities. Among them were nymphs: semi-divine female figures that personified elements of the natural world.
But nymphs offer us more than just stories of sexy nature spirits.
They can reveal how ancient people thought about their world and connected with their landscape through mythology.
Personifying elements of nature
Nymph was a broad category in myth. It encompassed almost every semi-divine woman and girl in myth, including a number of goddesses. The sea goddess Thetis and the underworld river Styx were both sea nymphs as well as goddesses.
Nymphs were typically portrayed as young, exceptionally beautiful women in art and literature. The word “nymph” in ancient Greek could even be used to mean “young girl” or “unmarried woman” when applied to mortal women.
Despite this etymological connection, many nymphs were married or mothers or gods. Amphitrite was the wife of Poseidon, and her sister Metis, the personification of wisdom, was Zeus’ first wife, according to Hesiod’s Theogony. Maia was the mother of Hermes, the messenger god.
What links all nymphs was their connection with the natural world. Nymphs typically personified elements of nature, like bodies of water, mountains, forests, the weather, or specific plants.
One of the most quintessential nymphs was Daphne (or Laurel, in Latin). According to the Roman poet Ovid in his poem the Metamorphoses, Daphne was a stunningly beautiful nymph who lived in the forest.
Daphne had chosen to follow in the footsteps of Artemis (Diana), the goddess of the hunt, by being a huntress and abstaining from sex and marriage. But her beauty would be her downfall.
One day the god Apollo saw Daphne and immediately tried to pursue her. Daphne did not feel similarly and fled through the forest. Apollo chased and nearly caught her.
But Daphne’s father Peneus, a river god, saved his daughter by transforming her into the laurel tree.
Like many nymphs, Daphne’s myth was an origin story for her namesake tree and its significance to the god Apollo.
But her story also followed one of the most common tropes in nymph myths – the trope a nymph transformed into her namesake after running away from a male deity.
Different nymphs for trees, water, mountains, stars
There were even special names for different types of nymph.
Daphne was a dryad, or tree nymph. Oreads (mountain nymphs) are referenced in Homer’s Iliad. There were three different types of water nymph: the saltwater oceanids and nereids, and the freshwater naiads.
Nymphs lived in the wilderness. These untamed places could be dangerous but they also held precious natural resources that nymphs personified, such as special trees and springs.
Spring nymphs personified one of the most precious resources of all: freshwater.
It was hard to find freshwater in the ancient world, especially in places without human infrastructure. Cities were often built around springs.
The nymph Arethusa was the personification of the spring Arethusa in Sicily. Today, you can visit the Fountain of Arethusa in modern day Syracuse.
No matter where you looked in the ancient landscape, there were nymphs – even in the sky.
The Pleiades and Hyades were two sets of daughters of the god Atlas who eventually were transformed into stars.
Their myths gave an origin for two sets of constellations that were used for navigation and divination.
The Pleiades and Hyades constellations were visible to the naked eye, and can still be seen today.
Although myths may feel like a fictional story told to kids, nymph myths show that ancient myth is inseparable from the ancient landscape and ancient people.
The natural world was imbued with a divine presence from the gods who physically made it – Gaia (Earth) was literally the soil underfoot. Nymphs were a part of this divine presence.
This divine presence brought with it a very special boon: the gift of inspiration.
Some writers (such as Plato) referred to this sort of natural inspiration as being “seized by the nymphs” (νυμφόληπτος or nympholeptus).
Being present in nature and present in places with nymphs could bring about divine inspiration for philosophers, poets and artists alike.
So, if you ever do find yourself alone in a Grecian wood, you may find yourself inspired and in good company – as long as you remain respectful.
Kitty Smith is a member of the Australian Society for Classical Studies and of Australasian Women in Ancient World Studies.
Have you ever gone to toss something into the recycling bin – a jam jar, a pizza box, a takeaway container encrusted with yesterday’s lunch – and wondered if you’re doing it right? Perhaps you asked yourself: should I scrub the jar with hot water? Scrape the mozzarella off the box? Wash off that palak paneer?
Research shows most Australians believe they are good recyclers. But only 25% of people separate waste correctly and up to 35% of recycling goes to landfill unnecessarily. And one in four Australians tends not to rinse or empty food containers before sending them to the bin.
So just how well does recycling need to be rinsed? What should you do with your plastic lids and pizza boxes? And will robots one day work it all out for us?
One in four Australians tends not to rinse or empty food containers before recycling them. ThamKC/Shutterstock
The problem of contamination
Mechanical recycling methods – such as shredding and melting – struggle to operate when food and other residues are present.
In fact, one spoiled item might ruin the entire cycling batch. Queensland’s Goondiwindi Regional Council, for example, said nearly a quarter of its kerbside recyclables collected in 2022–23 was contaminated and sent to landfill.
Some councils use “advanced materials recovery” that can tolerate lightly soiled recyclables. These facilities use mechanical and automated sorting processes, including optical sorters and artificial intelligence.
But other councils still rely on human sorting, or basic mechanical systems, which require items to be relatively clean.
While local recycling capabilities come into play, as a general rule, rinse containers when you can. As well as avoiding contamination, it helps reduce smells and keep bins clean.
The best pre-cleaning method for recycling depends on the type of packaging.
Paper and cardboard: these items must be clean and dry – no exceptions. Paper and cardboard absorbs contamination more than other materials. So if it gets wet or greasy, it can’t be recycled – though it may be compostable.
So for pizza boxes, for example, recycle the clean parts and bin the parts that are greasy or have food stuck to them.
Unfortunately, traditional cardboard coffee cups are not usually recyclable in Australia. That’s because the plastic lining inside is bonded tightly to the paper, making it difficult to separate during standard paper recycling.
However in some areas, programs such as Simply Cups collect coffee cups and recycle them into sustainable products such as asphalt, concrete and building products.
And in some states, such as South Australia and Western Australia, single-use cups lined with polymer are banned and only compostable cups can be used.
The plastic lining in disposable coffee cups is tightly bonded to the paper, making recycling difficult. maxbelchenko/Shutterstock
Glass and metals: these items are washed and processed at extremely high temperatures, so can tolerate a bit of residue. But too much residue can contaminate paper and cardboard in the bin. So rinse glass and plastic to remove visible food and empty liquids. Just a quick rinse is enough – there’s no need to scrub or use hot water.
But not all glass and metals can be recycled. Mirrors and light bulbs, for instance, are treated in such a way that they melt at different temperatures to other glass. So check before you chuck.
Plastics: rinse plastics before putting them in the recycling bin. It’s important to know that the numbers 1 to 7 on plastics, inside a recycling symbol, do not necessarily mean the item can be recycled in your area. The number is a code that identifies what plastic the item is made from. Check if your council can recycle that type of plastic.
Complicating matters further is the question of plastic lids. On this, guidelines differ across Australia, so check your local rules.
Likewise, the rules on plastic bottle lids differ. Some councils allow bottle-lid recycling, but even then, the processes vary. In the Australian Capital territory, for example, a lid larger than a credit card can be put in the recycling bin, but consumers are asked to remove the lid from the bottle. But Brisbane City Council asks consumers to leave the lids on.
Meanwhile, organisations such as Lids4Kids collect plastic lids and make them into new products.
Advanced chemical recycling breaks plastic down into its chemical building blocks. It can process plastic types that traditional methods can’t, such as soft plastics, and turn it into valuable new products.
AI and automation are also reshaping recycling, by improving sorting and reducing contamination. And closed-loop washing systems, which filter and reuse water, can clean lightly soiled recyclables.
Other innovations are emerging, too, such as dissolvable packaging and AI-enabled “smart bins” that might one day identify and sort materials – and maybe even tell consumers if items need rinsing!
But upcycling still requires clean, well-sorted streams to be viable. And until all these technologies are widespread, each of us must help keep our recycling systems working well.
Pooria Pasbakhsh is also affiliated with Monash University Malaysia as an Adjunct Associate Professor. He received funding from CRC-P project entitled “Upcycling of Convoluted Subsea Flexible Flow Lines”, Grant number: 108439.
Have you ever gone to toss something into the recycling bin – a jam jar, a pizza box, a takeaway container encrusted with yesterday’s lunch – and wondered if you’re doing it right? Perhaps you asked yourself: should I scrub the jar with hot water? Scrape the mozzarella off the box? Wash off that palak paneer?
Research shows most Australians believe they are good recyclers. But only 25% of people separate waste correctly and up to 35% of recycling goes to landfill unnecessarily. And one in four Australians tends not to rinse or empty food containers before sending them to the bin.
So just how well does recycling need to be rinsed? What should you do with your plastic lids and pizza boxes? And will robots one day work it all out for us?
One in four Australians tends not to rinse or empty food containers before recycling them. ThamKC/Shutterstock
The problem of contamination
Mechanical recycling methods – such as shredding and melting – struggle to operate when food and other residues are present.
In fact, one spoiled item might ruin the entire cycling batch. Queensland’s Goondiwindi Regional Council, for example, said nearly a quarter of its kerbside recyclables collected in 2022–23 was contaminated and sent to landfill.
Some councils use “advanced materials recovery” that can tolerate lightly soiled recyclables. These facilities use mechanical and automated sorting processes, including optical sorters and artificial intelligence.
But other councils still rely on human sorting, or basic mechanical systems, which require items to be relatively clean.
While local recycling capabilities come into play, as a general rule, rinse containers when you can. As well as avoiding contamination, it helps reduce smells and keep bins clean.
The best pre-cleaning method for recycling depends on the type of packaging.
Paper and cardboard: these items must be clean and dry – no exceptions. Paper and cardboard absorbs contamination more than other materials. So if it gets wet or greasy, it can’t be recycled – though it may be compostable.
So for pizza boxes, for example, recycle the clean parts and bin the parts that are greasy or have food stuck to them.
Unfortunately, traditional cardboard coffee cups are not usually recyclable in Australia. That’s because the plastic lining inside is bonded tightly to the paper, making it difficult to separate during standard paper recycling.
However in some areas, programs such as Simply Cups collect coffee cups and recycle them into sustainable products such as asphalt, concrete and building products.
And in some states, such as South Australia and Western Australia, single-use cups lined with polymer are banned and only compostable cups can be used.
The plastic lining in disposable coffee cups is tightly bonded to the paper, making recycling difficult. maxbelchenko/Shutterstock
Glass and metals: these items are washed and processed at extremely high temperatures, so can tolerate a bit of residue. But too much residue can contaminate paper and cardboard in the bin. So rinse glass and plastic to remove visible food and empty liquids. Just a quick rinse is enough – there’s no need to scrub or use hot water.
But not all glass and metals can be recycled. Mirrors and light bulbs, for instance, are treated in such a way that they melt at different temperatures to other glass. So check before you chuck.
Plastics: rinse plastics before putting them in the recycling bin. It’s important to know that the numbers 1 to 7 on plastics, inside a recycling symbol, do not necessarily mean the item can be recycled in your area. The number is a code that identifies what plastic the item is made from. Check if your council can recycle that type of plastic.
Complicating matters further is the question of plastic lids. On this, guidelines differ across Australia, so check your local rules.
Likewise, the rules on plastic bottle lids differ. Some councils allow bottle-lid recycling, but even then, the processes vary. In the Australian Capital territory, for example, a lid larger than a credit card can be put in the recycling bin, but consumers are asked to remove the lid from the bottle. But Brisbane City Council asks consumers to leave the lids on.
Meanwhile, organisations such as Lids4Kids collect plastic lids and make them into new products.
Advanced chemical recycling breaks plastic down into its chemical building blocks. It can process plastic types that traditional methods can’t, such as soft plastics, and turn it into valuable new products.
AI and automation are also reshaping recycling, by improving sorting and reducing contamination. And closed-loop washing systems, which filter and reuse water, can clean lightly soiled recyclables.
Other innovations are emerging, too, such as dissolvable packaging and AI-enabled “smart bins” that might one day identify and sort materials – and maybe even tell consumers if items need rinsing!
But upcycling still requires clean, well-sorted streams to be viable. And until all these technologies are widespread, each of us must help keep our recycling systems working well.
Pooria Pasbakhsh is also affiliated with Monash University Malaysia as an Adjunct Associate Professor. He received funding from CRC-P project entitled “Upcycling of Convoluted Subsea Flexible Flow Lines”, Grant number: 108439.
Given the number of times this has happened already, it should come as little surprise that we’re now faced with yet another new subvariant of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID.
This new subvariant is known as XFG (nicknamed “Stratus”) and the World Health Organization (WHO) designated it a “variant under monitoring” in late June. XFG is a subvariant of Omicron, of which there are now more than 1,000.
A “variant under monitoring” signifies a variant or subvariant which needs prioritised attention and monitoring due to characteristics that may pose an additional threat compared to other circulating variants.
While recombination and other spontaneous changes happen often with SARS-CoV-2, it becomes a problem when it creates a subvariant that is changed in such a way that its properties cause more problems for us.
Most commonly this means the virus looks different enough that protection from past infection (and vaccination) doesn’t work so well, called immune evasion. This basically means the population becomes more susceptible and can lead to an increase in cases, and even a whole new wave of COVID infections across the world.
XFG has four key mutations in the spike protein, a protein on the surface of SARS-CoV-2 which allows it to attach to our cells. Some are believed to enhance evasion by certain antibodies.
The earliest XFG sample was collected on January 27.
As of June 22, there were 1,648 XFG sequences submitted to GISAID from 38 countries (GISAID is the global database used to track the prevalence of different variants around the world). This represents 22.7% of the globally available sequences at the time.
This was a significant rise from 7.4% four weeks prior and only just below the proportion of NB.1.8.1 at 24.9%. Given the now declining proportion of viral sequences of NB.1.8.1 overall, and the rapid rise of XFG, it would seem reasonable to expect XFG to become dominant very soon.
According to Australian data expert Mike Honey, the countries showing the highest rates of detection of XFG as of mid-June include India at more than 50%, followed by Spain at 42%, and the United Kingdom and United States, where the subvariant makes up more than 30% of cases.
In Australia as of June 29, NB.1.8.1 was the dominant subvariant, accounting for 48.6% of sequences. In the most recent report from Australia’s national genomic surveillance platform, there were 24 XFG sequences with 12 collected in the last 28 days meaning it currently comprises approximately 5% of sequences.
The big questions
When we talk about a new subvariant, people often ask questions including if it’s more severe or causes new or different symptoms compared to previous variants. But we’re still learning about XFG and we can’t answer these questions with certainty yet.
Some sources have reported XFG may be more likely to course “hoarseness” or a scratchy or raspy voice. But we need more information to know if this association is truly significant.
Notably, there’s no evidence to suggest XFG causes more severe illness compared to other variants in circulation or that it is necessarily any more transmissible.
Will vaccines still work against XFG?
Relatively frequent changes to the virus means we have continued to update the COVID vaccines. The most recent update, which targets the JN.1 subvariant, became available in Australia from late 2024. XFG is a descendant of the JN.1 subvariant.
Fortunately, based on the evidence available so far, currently approved COVID vaccines are expected to remain effective against XFG, particularly against symptomatic and severe disease.
Because of SARS-CoV-2’s continued evolution, the effect of this on our immune response, as well as the fact protection from COVID vaccines declines over time, COVID vaccines are offered regularly, and recommended for those at the highest risk.
One of the major challenges we face at present in Australia is low COVID vaccine uptake. While rates have increased somewhat recently, they remain relatively low, with only 32.3% of people aged 75 years and over having received a vaccine in the past six months. Vaccination rates in younger age groups are significantly lower.
Although the situation with XFG must continue to be monitored, at present the WHO has assessed the global risk posed by this subvariant as low. The advice for combating COVID remains unchanged, including vaccination as recommended and the early administration of antivirals for those who are eligible.
Measures to reduce the risk of transmission, particularly wearing masks in crowded indoor settings and focusing on air quality and ventilation, are worth remembering to protect against COVID and other viral infections.
Paul Griffin has been the principal investigator for clinical trials of 8 COVID-19 vaccines. He has previously participated in medical advisory boards for COVID-19 vaccines. Paul Griffin is a director and medical advisory board member of the immunisation coalition.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jesse Cale, Associate Professor of Criminology, Deputy Director Research (Griffith Youth Forensic Service), Griffith University
When we think about who’s responsible for sexual abuse in Australia, we usually picture adults.
But young people are responsible for a substantial proportion of sexual offences nationwide. Up to a third of all child sexual abuse is perpetrated by people under 18. So too are a quarter of sexual assaults against both teens and adults.
New research shows there are effective treatment options for perpetrators under the age of 18 to help prevent them offending again in future.
Our study found young people who received specialist forensic treatment were up to 90% less likely to sexually reoffend, compared with similar peers who did not receive the service.
The findings suggest more children can be protected from the harms of sexual abuse by preventing repeat offending. It also shows many young people who commit these crimes can be safely treated in the community.
Our study
In our paper, published in the Journal of Criminal Justice, we evaluated administrative data from more than 1,400 young people who were processed for sexual offences, such as indecent treatment of a child and sexual assault, in Queensland between 2010 and 2024.
We securely accessed more than a decade of anonymised youth justice records and applied advanced statistical techniques across treatment and control groups.
Across five separate statistical approaches, the findings were consistent. Griffith Youth Forensic Service treatment significantly reduced reoffending across different categories of offending, and most importantly, sexual offences.
Key findings showed a 78–90% reduction in sexual reoffending, a 34–44% reduction in overall offending, and additional reductions in violent and non-violent offending.
The treatment group also showed longer follow-up periods without offending. This indicates not just fewer offences, but sustained behavioural change.
The study is among the most scientifically rigorous to look into this issue, which is often hard to research due to the sensitivity of the subject and lack of high-quality data.
What did the treatment involve?
The Griffith Youth Forensic Service has operated in Queensland since 2001. It delivers specialised assessment and treatment for young people aged 10–17 who have been sentenced for sexual offences.
Supported by a partnership between the Department of Youth Justice and Victim Support and Griffith University, the service runs statewide, often in remote or under-resourced communities, and prioritises high-risk cases.
Clinicians at the service use trauma-informed, evidence-based methods. But what makes the service unique is its individualised approach. Each young person is treated in the context of their family, school, peer group and community.
The treatment is highly tailored to the circumstances of the young person involved. Shutterstock
Two young people referred to treatment for sexually abusive behaviour may present with very different life histories and contributing factors. They therefore require tailored intervention approaches.
The goal is to address the underlying drivers of offending, not just to manage behaviour.
The service also helps produce research aimed at improving policy and frontline responses to youth sexual offending.
Why it matters
Sexually harmful and abusive behaviours often occur in the context of trauma, family dysfunction or developmental disruption, and do not always continue into adulthood.
But without intervention, some young people go on to reoffend. The consequences for victims and communities can be devastating.
This study offers evidence that specialist, community-based treatment can help break that cycle.
And because the treatment model also appears to reduce general reoffending, its benefits likely extend beyond preventing sexual harm to preventing other types of harm too.
It’s a flow-on effect: this treatment is promoting safer outcomes across the board.
Treatment over jail time
The study comes at a time of growing public concern about youth crime, and growing interest in solutions that go beyond punishment.
In Queensland, where this research was done, “adult time for adult crime” laws trying to drive down the rate of youth offending featured prominently in the 2024 election campaign.
The measures have been roundly criticised, including by the United Nations.
This research shows properly resourced rehabilitative strategies can be highly effective in reducing youth offending, often more so than punishment.
Other studies also show community-based ways to deal with the problem, albeit not looking at sexual offending specifically.
We know mental health support is hugely helpful for reducing recidivism through keeping children out of a cycle of incarceration.
There have also been studies of preschool programs that suggest specific types of early childhood education can prevent children going on to commit crimes.
Where to from here?
The particular focus of our study, the Griffith Youth Forensic Service, is only in Queensland, but the findings are relevant for other jurisdictions.
In New South Wales, New Street Services provide therapeutic interventions across the state for adolescents aged 10–17 who have engaged in harmful sexual behaviour.
Importantly, specialised services aren’t available in all states, and very few include the same built-in research and evaluation components as the Griffith Youth Forensic Service.
The results of our study support continued national investment in:
specialist, evidence-based programs tailored to young people
community-based and trauma-informed approaches
improving service accessibility, especially in remote or underserved areas.
The study also highlights the importance of rigorous evaluation in guiding youth justice and broader government policy and funding decisions.
This service works, and now we have data to prove it.
Jesse Cale is the Deputy Director of the Griffith Youth Forensic Service.
Benoit Leclerc is Director of the Griffith Youth Forensic Service
Francisco Perales works for the Queensland Department of Youth Justice and Victim Support. The contributions made to this piece and the underlying research are however in his capacity as Adjunct Professor at Griffith University and are independent of his role at the department. The views expressed in this piece are therefore those of the author and may not reflect those of the department.
Tyson Whitten is a Senior Research Fellow at Childlight, UNSW.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Kylie Walker, Visiting Fellow, National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science, Australian National University
Stellalevi / Getty Images
Science in the United States in in trouble. The National Science Foundation, a key research funding agency, has suffered devastating funding cuts under the current administration. Critics say the cuts risk losing an entire generation of young scientists.
The US has long been the global destination for science. But perhaps no longer. The rest of the world, including Australia, is looking to lure scientists from the US.
And many of those scientists are looking to move. In March, a Nature survey suggested more than 75% of US researchers were considering leaving the country.
What moves are under way to capitalise on this American brain drain? Where does Australia sit – and, importantly, are we doing enough?
What are other countries doing?
In May, the European Commission announced a two-year, €500 million package to woo scientists and researchers called Choose Europe. The announcement of the package highlighted how “academic and scientific freedom is increasingly under threat”, and offers researchers higher allowances, longer contracts and reduced regulatory barriers to innovation.
Canada also has active efforts. The Toronto-based University Hospital Network, for example, aims to raise C$30 million to attract and recruit clinician scientists and medical talent.
Programs such as the EU’s and Canada’s ostensibly aim to attract and recruit top talent from “around the world”. Given the timing, however, it’s no secret which country’s scientists they have their eyes on.
What about Australia?
In Australia, the scientific community is understandably concerned about events in the US and their impact on Australian research. The US is Australia’s largest research partner, with a conservatively estimated A$386 million in funding for Australian research organisations coming from the US government.
At the same time, the US cuts represent an opportunity for Australia as for other countries. The Australian Academy of Science recently launched its Global Talent Attraction Program to take advantage of “a rare opportunity to strengthen our nation by attracting world-leading researchers to our shores”. The program will offer relocation packages for selected researchers, together with research funding, access to Australian infrastructure and family relocation support.
As well as attracting US talent, it may also be an opportunity to reverse the brain drain and bring back talented Australians who may have moved to the US for what were once better career prospects.
The global picture
Attracting, recruiting and retaining US researchers and innovators at all levels is the right thing for Australia to pursue right now. But broader international relationships are also worth some effort, including with countries in our region such as Japan, South Korea and Singapore, as well as in Europe.
These can be facilitated through existing initiatives such as the strategic arm of the Global Science and Technology Diplomacy Fund. Backed by the Australian government and delivered by the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (where I am the CEO) and the Australian Academy of Science, the fund brings together innovators and research initiatives in priority partner countries and Australia. Areas of interest include advanced manufacturing, artificial intelligence and hydrogen production.
With the US pulling out of international collaborations, there is a chance for Australia to establish itself as a science and technology hub within our region.
We have huge clout in renewable energy and battery technologies. Australian-invented solar panels represent the majority of household solar around the world and Australian batteries technology is among the best.
Australian researchers, policymakers and citizens are right to be concerned by what’s happening in the US. But we don’t need to wait anxiously. We have an extremely rare opportunity to foster talent in Australia on our terms.
Kylie Walker is CEO of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and previously worked for the Australian Academy of Science (2011–2016).
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Patrick Dodd, Professional Teaching Fellow, Business School, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau
For a long time, universities worked off a simple idea: knowledge was scarce. You paid for tuition, showed up to lectures, completed assignments and eventually earned a credential.
That process did two things: it gave you access to knowledge that was hard to find elsewhere, and it signalled to employers you had invested time and effort to master that knowledge.
The model worked because the supply curve for high-quality information sat far to the left, meaning knowledge was scarce and the price – tuition and wage premiums – stayed high.
Now the curve has shifted right, as the graph below illustrates. When supply moves right – that is, something becomes more accessible – the new intersection with demand sits lower on the price axis. This is why tuition premiums and graduate wage advantages are now under pressure.
According to global consultancy McKinsey, generative AI could add between US$2.6 trillion and $4.4 trillion in annual global productivity. Why? Because AI drives the marginal cost of producing and organising information toward zero.
Large language models no longer just retrieve facts; they explain, translate, summarise and draft almost instantly. When supply explodes like that, basic economics says price falls. The “knowledge premium” universities have long sold is deflating as a result.
Employers have already made their move
Markets react faster than curriculums. Since ChatGPT launched, entry-level job listings in the United Kingdom have fallen by about a third. In the United States, several states are removing degree requirements from public-sector roles.
In Maryland, for instance, the share of state-government job ads requiring a degree slid from roughly 68% to 53% between 2022 and 2024.
In economic terms, employers are repricing labour because AI is now a substitute for many routine, codifiable tasks that graduates once performed. If a chatbot can complete the work at near-zero marginal cost, the wage premium paid to a junior analyst shrinks.
But the value of knowledge is not falling at the same speed everywhere. Economists such as David Autor and Daron Acemoglu point out that technology substitutes for some tasks while complementing others:
codifiable knowledge – structured, rule-based material such as tax codes or contract templates – faces rapid substitution by AI
tacit knowledge – contextual skills such as leading a team through conflict – acts as a complement, so its value can even rise.
Data backs this up. Labour market analytics company Lightcast notes that one-third of the skills employers want have changed between 2021 and 2024. The American Enterprise Institute warns that mid-level knowledge workers, whose jobs depend on repeatable expertise, are most at risk of wage pressure.
So yes, baseline knowledge still matters. You need it to prompt AI, judge its output and make good decisions. But the equilibrium wage premium – meaning the extra pay employers offer once supply and demand for that knowledge settle – is sliding down the demand curve fast.
What’s scarce now?
Herbert Simon, the Nobel Prize–winning economist and cognitive scientist, put it neatly decades ago: “A wealth of information creates a poverty of attention.” When facts become cheap and plentiful, our limited capacity to filter, judge and apply them turns into the real bottleneck.
That is why scarce resources shift from information itself to what machines still struggle to copy: focused attention, sound judgement, strong ethics, creativity and collaboration.
I group these human complements under what I call the C.R.E.A.T.E.R. framework:
critical thinking – asking smart questions and spotting weak arguments
resilience and adaptability – staying steady when everything changes
emotional intelligence – understanding people and leading with empathy
accountability and ethics – taking responsibility for difficult calls
teamwork and collaboration – working well with people who think differently
entrepreneurial creativity – seeing gaps and building new solutions
reflection and lifelong learning – staying curious and ready to grow.
These capabilities are the genuine scarcity in today’s market. They are complements to AI, not substitutes, which is why their wage returns hold or climb.
What universities can do right now
1. Audit courses: if ChatGPT can already score highly on an exam, the marginal value of teaching that content is near zero. Pivot the assessment toward judgement and synthesis.
2. Reinvest in the learning experience: push resources into coached projects, messy real-world simulations, and ethical decision labs where AI is a tool, not the performer.
3. Credential what matters: create micro-credentials for skills such as collaboration, initiative and ethical reasoning. These signal AI complements, not substitutes, and employers notice.
4. Work with industry but keep it collaborative: invite employers to co-design assessments, not dictate them. A good partnership works like a design studio rather than a boardroom order sheet. Academics bring teaching expertise and rigour, employers supply real-world use cases, and students help test and refine the ideas.
Universities can no longer rely on scarcity setting the price for the curated and credentialed form of information that used to be hard to obtain.
The comparative advantage now lies in cultivating human skills that act as complements to AI. If universities do not adapt, the market – students and employers alike – will move on without them.
The opportunity is clear. Shift the product from content delivery to judgement formation. Teach students how to think with, not against, intelligent machines. Because the old model, the one that priced knowledge as a scarce good, is already slipping below its economic break-even point.
Patrick Dodd does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
A prominent academic has criticised the New Zealand coalition government for compromising the country’s traditional commitment to upholding an international rules-based order due to a “desire not to offend” the Trump administration.
Professor Robert Patman, an inaugural sesquicentennial distinguished chair and a specialist in international relations at the University of Otago, has argued in a contributed article to The Spinoff that while distant in geographic terms, “brutal violence in Gaza, the West Bank and Iran marks the latest stage in the unravelling of an international rules-based order on which New Zealand depends for its prosperity and security”.
Dr Patman wrote that New Zealand’s founding document, the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, emphasised partnership and cooperation at home, and, after 1945, helped inspire a New Zealand worldview enshrined in institutions such as the United Nations and norms such as multilateralism.
Professor Robert Patman . . . “Even more striking was the government’s silence on President Trump’s proposal to own Gaza with a view to evicting two million Palestinian residents.” Image: University of Otago
“In the wake of Hamas’ terrorist attacks in Israel on October 7, 2023, the National-led coalition government has in principle emphasised its support for a lasting ceasefire in Gaza and the need for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict over the occupied territories of East Jerusalem, Gaza and the West Bank,” he wrote.
However, Dr Patman said, in practice this New Zealand stance had not translated into firm diplomatic opposition to the Netanyahu government’s quest to control Gaza and annex the West Bank.
“Nor has it been a condemnation of the Trump administration for prioritising its support for Israel’s security goals over international law,” he said.
Foreign minister Winston Peters had described the situation in Gaza as “simply intolerable” but the National-led coalition had little specific to say as the Netanyahu government “resumed its cruel blockade of humanitarian aid to Gaza in March and restarted military operations there”.
Silence on Trump’s ‘Gaza ownership’ “Even more striking was the government’s silence on President Trump’s proposal to own Gaza with a view to evicting two million Palestinian residents from the territory and the US-Israeli venture to start the Gaza Humanitarian Foundation (GHF) in late May in a move which sidelined the UN in aid distribution and has led to the killing of more than 600 Palestinians while seeking food aid,” Dr Patman said.
While New Zealand, along with the UK, Australia, Canada and Norway, had imposed sanctions on two far-right Israeli government ministers, Bezalel Smotrich and Itamar ben Gvir, in June for “inciting extremist violence” against Palestinians — a move that was criticised by the Trump administration — it was arguably a case of very little very late.
“The Hamas terror attacks on October 7 killed around 1200 Israelis, but the Netanyahu government’s retaliation by the Israel Defence Force (IDF) against Hamas has resulted in the deaths of more than 56,000 Palestinians — nearly 70 percent of whom were women or children — in Gaza.
Over the same period, more than 1000 Palestinians had been killed in the West Bank as Israel accelerated its programme of illegal settlements there.
‘Strangely ambivalent’ In addition, the responses of the New Zealand government to “pre-emptive attacks” by Israel (13-25 June) and Trump’s United States (June 22) against Iran to destroy Iran’s nuclear capabilities were strangely ambivalent.
Despite indications from US intelligence and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that Iran had not produced nuclear weapons, Foreign Minister Peters had said New Zealand was not prepared to take a position on that issue.
Confronted with Trump’s “might is right” approach, the National-led coalition faced stark choices, Dr Patman said.
The New Zealand government could continue to fudge fundamental moral and legal issues in the Middle East and risk complicity in the further weakening of an international rules-based order it purportedly supports, “or it can get off the fence, stand up for the country’s values, and insist that respect for international law must be observed in the region and elsewhere without exception”.
A prominent academic has criticised the New Zealand coalition government for compromising the country’s traditional commitment to upholding an international rules-based order due to a “desire not to offend” the Trump administration.
Professor Robert Patman, an inaugural sesquicentennial distinguished chair and a specialist in international relations at the University of Otago, has argued in a contributed article to The Spinoff that while distant in geographic terms, “brutal violence in Gaza, the West Bank and Iran marks the latest stage in the unravelling of an international rules-based order on which New Zealand depends for its prosperity and security”.
Dr Patman wrote that New Zealand’s founding document, the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, emphasised partnership and cooperation at home, and, after 1945, helped inspire a New Zealand worldview enshrined in institutions such as the United Nations and norms such as multilateralism.
Professor Robert Patman . . . “Even more striking was the government’s silence on President Trump’s proposal to own Gaza with a view to evicting two million Palestinian residents.” Image: University of Otago
“In the wake of Hamas’ terrorist attacks in Israel on October 7, 2023, the National-led coalition government has in principle emphasised its support for a lasting ceasefire in Gaza and the need for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict over the occupied territories of East Jerusalem, Gaza and the West Bank,” he wrote.
However, Dr Patman said, in practice this New Zealand stance had not translated into firm diplomatic opposition to the Netanyahu government’s quest to control Gaza and annex the West Bank.
“Nor has it been a condemnation of the Trump administration for prioritising its support for Israel’s security goals over international law,” he said.
Foreign minister Winston Peters had described the situation in Gaza as “simply intolerable” but the National-led coalition had little specific to say as the Netanyahu government “resumed its cruel blockade of humanitarian aid to Gaza in March and restarted military operations there”.
Silence on Trump’s ‘Gaza ownership’ “Even more striking was the government’s silence on President Trump’s proposal to own Gaza with a view to evicting two million Palestinian residents from the territory and the US-Israeli venture to start the Gaza Humanitarian Foundation (GHF) in late May in a move which sidelined the UN in aid distribution and has led to the killing of more than 600 Palestinians while seeking food aid,” Dr Patman said.
While New Zealand, along with the UK, Australia, Canada and Norway, had imposed sanctions on two far-right Israeli government ministers, Bezalel Smotrich and Itamar ben Gvir, in June for “inciting extremist violence” against Palestinians — a move that was criticised by the Trump administration — it was arguably a case of very little very late.
“The Hamas terror attacks on October 7 killed around 1200 Israelis, but the Netanyahu government’s retaliation by the Israel Defence Force (IDF) against Hamas has resulted in the deaths of more than 56,000 Palestinians — nearly 70 percent of whom were women or children — in Gaza.
Over the same period, more than 1000 Palestinians had been killed in the West Bank as Israel accelerated its programme of illegal settlements there.
‘Strangely ambivalent’ In addition, the responses of the New Zealand government to “pre-emptive attacks” by Israel (13-25 June) and Trump’s United States (June 22) against Iran to destroy Iran’s nuclear capabilities were strangely ambivalent.
Despite indications from US intelligence and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that Iran had not produced nuclear weapons, Foreign Minister Peters had said New Zealand was not prepared to take a position on that issue.
Confronted with Trump’s “might is right” approach, the National-led coalition faced stark choices, Dr Patman said.
The New Zealand government could continue to fudge fundamental moral and legal issues in the Middle East and risk complicity in the further weakening of an international rules-based order it purportedly supports, “or it can get off the fence, stand up for the country’s values, and insist that respect for international law must be observed in the region and elsewhere without exception”.
The Reserve Bank of Australia has kept the cash rate at 3.85%, after cutting it in February and May.
Those earlier moves were aimed at supporting the economy as growth slowed and inflation eased. This time, however, the bank chose to pause, signalling a more cautious stance.
The decision will be hard for the millions of mortgage holders and aspiring home owners who were hoping for a cut.
But as the bank’s monetary policy board explained:
the board judged that it could wait for a little more information to confirm that inflation remains on track to reach 2.5% on a sustainable basis.
The decision surprised many. Financial markets had priced in a 90% chance of a rate cut and the big four banks – ANZ, Westpac, Commonwealth and NAB – had forecast an easing in July.
On Tuesday afternoon Treasurer Jim Chalmers, would not be drawn on whether the bank had made the right decision but did say:
it was not the result millions of Australians were hoping for or what the market was expecting.
By holding steady, the bank is signalling it is not yet fully convinced inflation is returning to target and is prepared to wait for further evidence before cutting again.
The bank also cautioned that uncertainty in the world economy remains elevated, with the final scope of trade tariffs yet to play out.
What’s behind this surprise decision?
The economy grew just 0.2% in the March quarter, with annual growth slowing to 1.3%. This was well below trend and even weaker than the 0.6% pace recorded in the December quarter. The data points to a clear loss of momentum.
Consumer spending has also remained soft. Retail sales rose only 0.2% in May, following flat or falling results in the two previous months.
Food spending declined, and sales of household goods were unchanged. Many households are still feeling the squeeze from high interest rates, rising living costs, and low confidence in the economy.
Inflation has continued to ease. May’s inflation figures showed headline inflation falling to 2.1%, while the Reserve Bank’s preferred trimmed mean – dropped to 2.4% – the lowest since late 2021.
The trimmed mean is a measure of underlying inflation that excludes the most extreme price changes (both increases and decreases) in the consumer price index basket to give a clearer picture of inflation trends.
Price pressures have eased across both goods and services, with no signs of wage-driven or second-round inflation taking hold.
Despite this, the bank decided to pause. While inflation is generally in line with its forecasts, the bank noted:
the June quarter CPI [consumer price index] figures were slightly stronger than expected at the margin.
With rates already cut twice this year and broader economic conditions evolving as expected, the Reserve Bank judged it could wait for more data before making its next move.
What happens next?
Markets still expect two more cuts this year – in August and November – which would bring the cash rate down to 3.35% by the end of 2025. But this depends on how inflation, wages and the job market evolve.
Wage growth is slowing. Private sector wages rose 3.3% over the year to March, the slowest pace since mid-2022.
The unemployment rate stayed at 4.1% in May, with little change in how many people are working or looking for jobs. The job market is still solid, but signs of slowing are emerging.
The Reserve Bank is likely to move carefully. While inflation pressures have eased, the board wants to be sure prices stay within its 2 to 3% target band. It’s also keeping an eye on the housing market. Home prices rose 0.4% in June and are now up 4.6% over the year.
That renewed strength, helped by earlier rate cuts and limited supply, could make future decisions more complicated.
Global conditions still matter
As the monetary policy board noted, “uncertainty in the world economy remains elevated”. Slowing global growth and fragile trade conditions are adding to the complexity of the bank’s task.
In Europe, economic growth is expected to reach just 0.9% this year, well below historical norms.
China’s recovery also remains uneven, despite authorities targeting 5% growth. Weak private investment and ongoing challenges in the property sector continue to weigh on momentum.
Meanwhile, global trade has stalled. The World Trade Organization expects trade volumes to fall 0.2% this year as tensions and tariffs continue to disrupt supply chains. Ongoing trade threats between the United States and China are also hurting investment and weighing on key Australian exports like resources and education.
Tuesday’s decision to hold the cash rate steady highlights the Reserve Bank’s cautious approach in a shifting economic environment.
Growth is soft, inflation has eased back within the target band, and household spending remains under pressure. But with inflation data slightly stronger than expected, the bank is choosing to wait for more confirmation before cutting again.
This isn’t a change in direction – it’s a pause for more information. The message remains clear: the Reserve Bank is prepared to act, but only when the data warrant it.
Stella Huangfu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
US President Donald Trump has hosted Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for dinner at the White House, where he has declared talks to end the war in Gaza are “going along very well”.
In turn, Netanyahu revealed he has nominated Trump for the Nobel Peace Prize, saying:
he is forging peace as we speak, in one country, in one region, after the other.
Despite all the talk of peace, negotiations in Qatar between Israeli and Palestinian delegations have broken up without a breakthrough. The talks are expected to resume later this week.
If an agreement is reached, it will likely be hailed as a crucial opportunity to end nearly two years of humanitarian crisis in Gaza, following the October 7 attacks in which 1,200 Israelis were killed by Hamas-led militants.
However, there is growing scepticism about the durability of any truce. A previous ceasefire agreement reached in January led to the release of dozens of Israeli hostages and hundreds of Palestinian prisoners.
This breakdown in trust on both sides, combined with ongoing Israeli military operations and political instability, suggests the new deal may prove to be another temporary pause rather than a lasting resolution.
Details of the deal
The proposed agreement outlines a 60-day ceasefire aimed at de-escalating hostilities in Gaza and creating space for negotiations toward a more lasting resolution.
Hamas would release ten surviving Israeli hostages and return the remains of 18 others. In exchange, Israel is expected to withdraw its military forces to a designated buffer zone along Gaza’s borders with both Israel and Egypt.
The agreement being thrashed out in Doha includes the release of Israeli hostages, held in Gaza for the past 22 months. Anas-Mohammed/Shutterstock
While the specific terms of a prisoner exchange remain under negotiation, the release of Palestinian detainees held in Israeli prisons is a central component of the proposal.
Humanitarian aid is also a key focus of the agreement. Relief would be delivered through international organisations, primarily UN agencies and the Palestinian Red Crescent.
However, the agreement does not specify the future role of the US-backed Gaza Humanitarian Fund, which has been distributing food aid since May.
The urgency of humanitarian access is underscored by the scale of destruction in Gaza. According to Gaza’s Health Ministry, Israel’s military campaign has killed more than 57,000 Palestinians. The offensive has triggered a hunger crisis, displaced much of the population internally, and left vast areas of the territory in ruins.
Crucially, the agreement does not represent an end to the war, one of Hamas’s core demands. Instead, it commits both sides to continue negotiations throughout the 60-day period, with the hope of reaching a more durable and comprehensive ceasefire.
Obstacles to a lasting peace
Despite the apparent opportunity to reach a final ceasefire, especially after Israel has inflicted severe damage on Hamas, Netanyahu’s government appears reluctant to fully end the military campaign.
A central reason is political: Netanyahu’s ruling coalition heavily relies on far-right parties that insist on continuing the war. Any serious attempt at a ceasefire could lead to the collapse of his government.
Militarily, Israel has achieved several of its tactical objectives.
It has significantly weakened Hamas and other Palestinian factions and caused widespread devastation across Gaza. This is alongside the mass arrests, home demolitions, and killing of hundreds of Palestinians in the West Bank.
And it has forced Hezbollah in Lebanon to scale back its operations after sustaining major losses.
Perhaps most notably, Israel struck deep into Iran’s military infrastructure, killing dozens of high-ranking commanders and damaging its missile and nuclear capabilities.
Reshaping the map
Yet Netanyahu’s ambitions may go beyond tactical victories. There are signs he is aiming for two broader strategic outcomes.
First, by making Gaza increasingly uninhabitable, his government could push Palestinians to flee. This would effectively pave the way for Israel to annex the territory in the long term – a scenario advocated by many of his far-right allies.
Speaking at the White House, Netanyahu says he is working with the US on finding countries that will take Palestinians from Gaza:
if people want to stay, they can stay, but if they want to leave, they should be able to leave.
Second, prolonging the war allows Netanyahu to delay his ongoing corruption trial and extend his political survival.
True intentions
At the heart of the impasse is the far-right’s vision for total Palestinian defeat, with no concession and no recognition of a future Palestinian state. This ideology has consistently blocked peace efforts for three decades.
Israeli leaders have repeatedly described any potential Palestinian entity as “less than a state” or a “state-minus”, a formulation that falls short of Palestinian aspirations and international legal standards.
Today, even that limited vision appears to be off the table, as Israeli policy moves towards complete rejection of Palestinian statehood.
With Palestinian resistance movements significantly weakened and no immediate threat facing Israel, this moment presents a crucial test of Israel’s intentions.
Is Israel genuinely pursuing peace, or seeking to cement its dominance in the region while permanently denying Palestinians their right to statehood?
Following its military successes and the normalisation of relations with several Arab states under the Abraham Accords, Israeli political discourse has grown increasingly bold.
Some voices in the Israeli establishment are openly advocating for the permanent displacement of Palestinians to neighbouring Arab countries such as Jordan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. This would effectively erase the prospect of a future Palestinian state.
This suggests that for certain factions within Israel, the end goal is not a negotiated settlement, but a one-sided resolution that reshapes the map and the people of the region on Israel’s terms.
The coming weeks will reveal whether Israel chooses the path of compromise and coexistence, or continues down a road that forecloses the possibility of lasting peace.
Ali Mamouri does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Has the ending of Squid Game left you feeling downhearted? The South Korean megahit struck a nerve with audiences worldwide, with millions logging in to Netflix to follow protagonist Seong Gi-hun and fellow players in their fight for survival over three deadly seasons.
But even if you haven’t seen Squid Game, you’ve probably experienced the sense of loss that comes with the ending of much-loved series. These feelings are very normal, as finales can be deeply meaningful to viewers.
One of the most famous was the 1983 finale of M*A*S*H*, in which the Korean War ended. The flow rate in two water tunnels in New York leapt by millions of gallons right after the episode ended. Apparently about a million New Yorkers were waiting until the end to use the bathroom.
A good finale can be a sweet sendoff for viewers after years of investment. A bad one, however, can leave a bitter taste.
Why finales matter to us
We watch series for a range of reasons, including excitement, vicarious experience, emotional release and self-reflection. One of the main ways we engage with the stories is through the characters. We may admire them, empathise with them, or even see them as a part of our lives.
These parasocial relationships are similar to our real-life relationships (except they are one-sided). A show’s ending is ultimately an end to those relationships: a chance to say goodbye to our parasocial friends.
If a finale strikes a fake chord, or seems to betray the world we’ve come to love, it can make the grieving process harder. An unsatisfying finale might even sour our view of the entire series.
The need for closure
Generally, a satisfying finale will be one that offers us closure. One of the earliest examples of this came in 1967 with The Fugitive (1963–67), when 78 million American viewers watched doctor Richard Kimble finally catch his wife’s assailant.
More recent examples include The Nanny (1993–99) – where the romantic tension between Fran and Mr Sheffield is finally resolved – and Six Feet Under (2001–05), where we found out what happened to all the main characters.
Closure can also come through the death of important characters, such as in Breaking Bad (2008–13) and Game of Thrones (2011–19).
The need for narrative closure is a somewhat curious phenomenon. While we often won’t get closure in real life, such as with our own love affairs, or big life events, we still expect this to happen for our favourite characters.
For me, Mad Men (2007–15) provided the right mix. While we learn the ultimate fates of some characters, we also get the feeling others such as Peggy Olson and Pete Campbell will get up the next day and go to work. We just won’t see them do it.
Turning it on its head
Finales also offer a chance to shake things up. In Sex and the City (1998–2004), relationships hang in the balance until the very end.
Some finales may signal new beginnings, particularly through a big wedding. For exanmple, Dorothy gets married and moves away in The Golden Girls (1985–92).
In Schitt’s Creek (2015–20), some characters stay in the town, while others move away following the wedding of David and Patrick, presided over by Moira, the grande dame of the Rose family.
Then there are surprising finales. Whether they aim to provide a final shock, or reflect the quagmire of ending a long-running show, these are usually the most controversial.
Newhart (1982–90) ended by using a spin on the “it was all a dream” trope, with the final scene linking the show to star Bob Newhart’s earlier sitcom.
The Sopranos (1999–2007), meanwhile, gave us one of the most talked about and divisive endings in recent memory. It is left to the viewer’s imagination to decide what happened to Tony Soprano. Some saw this as brilliant, others a cop-out.
Other finales involved big, but for some viewers, disappointing, reveals. These include the identity of the mother in How I Met Your Mother (2005–14), and the resolution of Lost (2004–10), which some fans felt was too ambiguous and complex for a final episode.
Viewers hoping for a positive or fairy-tale ending may react negatively if it doesn’t come.
Or, they might feel shortchanged if their reason for investing time in a series – such as to get to the bottom of a mystery – isn’t delivered upon by the end.
Saying goodbye, together
Grieving the end of a series is normal. We should honour what these fictional worlds provide us: joy, escapism and personal growth through self-reflection.
Connecting with our favourite characters matters for another reason, too, because these fictional bonds also help us connect with others in real life. We might grieve with other fans over the sad ending of a show, or vent with them if they also found the finale underwhelming.
Even when a series is over, relationships between fans can continue through online groups, repeat streaming and fan conventions.
With time, feelings of loss over a series’ end may make way for other feelings, such as gratitude for having experienced it at all.
Adam Gerace does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
As tools such as ChatGPT, Copilot and other generative artificial intelligence (AI) systems become part of everyday workflows, more companies are looking for employees who can answer “yes” to this question. In other words, people who can prompt effectively, think with AI, and use it to boost productivity.
In fact, in a growing number of roles, being “AI fluent” is quickly becoming as important as being proficient in office software once was.
But we’ve all had that moment when we’ve asked an AI chatbot a question and received what feels like the most generic, surface level answer. The problem isn’t the AI – you just haven’t given it enough to work with.
Think of it this way. During training, the AI will have “read” virtually everything on the internet. But because it makes predictions, it will give you the most probable, most common response. Without specific guidance, it’s like walking into a restaurant and asking for something good. You’ll likely get the chicken.
Your solution lies in understanding that AI systems excel at adapting to context, but you have to provide it. So how exactly do you do that?
Crafting better prompts
You may have heard the term “prompt engineering”. It might sound like you need to design some kind of technical script to get results.
To get the most out of your AI conversations, it’s important that you convey a few basics about what you want, and how you want it. Our approach follows the acronym CATS – context, angle, task and style.
Context means providing the setting and background information the AI needs. Instead of asking “How do I write a proposal?” try “I’m a nonprofit director writing a grant proposal to a foundation that funds environmental education programs for urban schools”. Upload relevant documents, explain your constraints, and describe your specific situation.
Angle (or attitude) leverages AI’s strength in role-playing and perspective-taking. Rather than getting a neutral response, specify the attitude you want. For example, “Act as a critical peer reviewer and identify weaknesses in my argument” or “Take the perspective of a supportive mentor helping me improve this draft”.
Task is specifically about what you actually want the AI to do. “Help me with my presentation” is vague. But “Give me three ways to make my opening slide more engaging for an audience of small business owners” is actionable.
Style harnesses AI’s ability to adapt to different formats and audiences. Specify whether you want a formal report, a casual email, bullet points for executives, or an explanation suitable for teenagers. Tell the AI what voice you want to use – for example, a formal academic style, technical, engaging or conversational.
In a growing number of roles, being able to use AI is quickly becoming as important as being proficient in office software once was. Shutterstock
Context is everything
Besides crafting a clear, effective prompt, you can also focus on managing the surrounding information – that is to say on “context engineering”. Context engineering refers to everything that surrounds the prompt.
That means thinking about the environment and information the AI has access to: its memory function, instructions leading up to the task, prior conversation history, documents you upload, or examples of what good output looks like.
You should think about prompting as a conversation. If you’re not happy with the first response, push for more, ask for changes, or provide more clarifying information.
Don’t expect the AI to give a ready-made response. Instead, use it to trigger your own thinking. If you feel the AI has produced a lot of good material but you get stuck, copy the best parts into a fresh session and ask it to summarise and continue from there.
Always retain your professional distance and remind yourself that you are the only thinking part in this relationship. And always make sure to check the accuracy of anything an AI produces – errors are increasingly common.
AI systems are remarkably capable, but they need you – and human intelligence – to bridge the gap between their vast generic knowledge and your particular situation. Give them enough context to work with, and they might surprise you with how helpful they can be.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Sarah Diepstraten, Senior Research Officer, Blood Cells and Blood Cancer Division, WEHI (Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research)
Cancer is traditionally known as a disease affecting mostly older people.
But some worrying trends show cancer rates in younger people aged under 50 are on the rise.
This week’s ABC 4 Corners suggest chemicals, including plastics, may play a role in rising rates of these early-onset cancers.
So what does the evidence say is causing this increase? And what can we do about it?
Why does cancer mostly affect older people?
Each cell in your body contains a copy of your DNA – the instructions needed to keep that cell functioning properly.
However, DNA can be damaged or “mutated” in such a way that a cell will no longer do the job it’s supposed to.
Some mutations will allow a cell to make too many copies of itself and grow out of control. Others can protect it from dying. And others still allow it to move around and travel to other organs where it doesn’t belong.
Accumulating too many of these DNA mutations can lead to cancer.
Every time a new cell is made in our body, a copy of our DNA is made too. Sometimes, due to random chance, mistakes occur which introduce genetic mutations.
Think of it like making a photocopy of a photocopy, and so on. Each copy will be slightly different than the original.
Most DNA mutations are harmless.
But your cells are making billions of new copies of themselves each day. So the older you get, the more DNA copies you will have made during your lifetime, and the more likely you are to have dangerous mistakes in those copies.
As we get older, our bodies aren’t as good at recognising and removing cells with dangerous mutations. That’s why cancer is much more common in older people.
What’s causing cancer in younger people?
One of the reasons increased cancer rates in younger people is so worrying is it means there are likely environmental factors involved we don’t yet know about.
Environmental factors are anything outside of our bodies: things such as chemicals, viruses and bacteria, the amount we exercise, and the foods we eat.
Many of these environmental factors can increase the likelihood of DNA copying mistakes, or even directly damage our DNA, increasing our risk of cancer.
One well-known example is ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, which can lead to skin cancer. Another is smoking, which can lead to lung cancer.
Fortunately, public awareness campaigns about the dangers of sun exposure, and reduced rates of people smoking cigarettes, have led to falling numbers of skin and lung cancer cases in Australians under 50 over the past 30 years.
But other types of cancer – including cancers of the liver, pancreas, prostate, breast and kidney – are increasing in young people in Australia. The trend is global, particularly among richer, western countries.
What role do chemicals play?
Researchers are working to understand the causes of these increases. Currently, chemicals are in the spotlight as an environmental factor of particular interest.
We’re exposed to more chemicals in the modern day than many of our ancestors were – things such as air pollution, food additives, plastics and many more.
Alcohol and cigarette smoke aside, most chemicals that are definitively linked to cancer are not ones most people would regularly encounter, as they’re restricted to spaces such as industry.
One of the main chemicals of concern are plastics, which are ubiquitous: almost everyone encounters them, every day.
Experts agree plastics represent an overall massive generalrisk to human health and the environment.
But there are so many thousands and thousands of plastics, it’s hard to point fingers at specific ones causing specific problems, including cancers.
Studies using animals can give strong evidence one way or another. But in humans who are exposed to thousands of different environmental factors every day, it’s difficult to definitively state “risk factor X contributes to cancer Y”.
So, it’s not possible to point to a single “smoking gun” in the case of the increasing early-onset cancer rates.
Let’s use colorectal cancer (also called bowel cancer) as an example to illustrate the issue.
Why are young people getting bowel cancer?
In older people, bowel cancer rates are actually falling. This is thought to be in part due to improved testing and screening helping to catch and destroy dangerous cells before they actually become cancer.
Some people speculate this may be due to increased exposure to plastics, as the digestive system is exposed to these through the food we eat. This includes things such as nano- or micro-plastics, or chemicals leaching out of the plastics into foods, such as PFAS (per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances).
While there is no definitive evidence linking chemicals to increased cancer risk in young people, this is an area of intense ongoing research. Reducing your use of and exposure to plastics and chemicals where possible is still probably a healthy thing to do.
If you have any concerns, and particularly if you have a family history of cancer, consult your doctor.
Sarah Diepstraten receives funding from Cure Cancer Australia and My Room Children’s Cancer Charity.
John (Eddie) La Marca receives funding from Cancer Council Victoria. He is affiliated with the Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute and the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Sarah Diepstraten, Senior Research Officer, Blood Cells and Blood Cancer Division, WEHI (Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research)
Cancer is traditionally known as a disease affecting mostly older people.
But some worrying trends show cancer rates in younger people aged under 50 are on the rise.
This week’s ABC 4 Corners suggest chemicals, including plastics, may play a role in rising rates of these early-onset cancers.
So what does the evidence say is causing this increase? And what can we do about it?
Why does cancer mostly affect older people?
Each cell in your body contains a copy of your DNA – the instructions needed to keep that cell functioning properly.
However, DNA can be damaged or “mutated” in such a way that a cell will no longer do the job it’s supposed to.
Some mutations will allow a cell to make too many copies of itself and grow out of control. Others can protect it from dying. And others still allow it to move around and travel to other organs where it doesn’t belong.
Accumulating too many of these DNA mutations can lead to cancer.
Every time a new cell is made in our body, a copy of our DNA is made too. Sometimes, due to random chance, mistakes occur which introduce genetic mutations.
Think of it like making a photocopy of a photocopy, and so on. Each copy will be slightly different than the original.
Most DNA mutations are harmless.
But your cells are making billions of new copies of themselves each day. So the older you get, the more DNA copies you will have made during your lifetime, and the more likely you are to have dangerous mistakes in those copies.
As we get older, our bodies aren’t as good at recognising and removing cells with dangerous mutations. That’s why cancer is much more common in older people.
What’s causing cancer in younger people?
One of the reasons increased cancer rates in younger people is so worrying is it means there are likely environmental factors involved we don’t yet know about.
Environmental factors are anything outside of our bodies: things such as chemicals, viruses and bacteria, the amount we exercise, and the foods we eat.
Many of these environmental factors can increase the likelihood of DNA copying mistakes, or even directly damage our DNA, increasing our risk of cancer.
One well-known example is ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, which can lead to skin cancer. Another is smoking, which can lead to lung cancer.
Fortunately, public awareness campaigns about the dangers of sun exposure, and reduced rates of people smoking cigarettes, have led to falling numbers of skin and lung cancer cases in Australians under 50 over the past 30 years.
But other types of cancer – including cancers of the liver, pancreas, prostate, breast and kidney – are increasing in young people in Australia. The trend is global, particularly among richer, western countries.
What role do chemicals play?
Researchers are working to understand the causes of these increases. Currently, chemicals are in the spotlight as an environmental factor of particular interest.
We’re exposed to more chemicals in the modern day than many of our ancestors were – things such as air pollution, food additives, plastics and many more.
Alcohol and cigarette smoke aside, most chemicals that are definitively linked to cancer are not ones most people would regularly encounter, as they’re restricted to spaces such as industry.
One of the main chemicals of concern are plastics, which are ubiquitous: almost everyone encounters them, every day.
Experts agree plastics represent an overall massive generalrisk to human health and the environment.
But there are so many thousands and thousands of plastics, it’s hard to point fingers at specific ones causing specific problems, including cancers.
Studies using animals can give strong evidence one way or another. But in humans who are exposed to thousands of different environmental factors every day, it’s difficult to definitively state “risk factor X contributes to cancer Y”.
So, it’s not possible to point to a single “smoking gun” in the case of the increasing early-onset cancer rates.
Let’s use colorectal cancer (also called bowel cancer) as an example to illustrate the issue.
Why are young people getting bowel cancer?
In older people, bowel cancer rates are actually falling. This is thought to be in part due to improved testing and screening helping to catch and destroy dangerous cells before they actually become cancer.
Some people speculate this may be due to increased exposure to plastics, as the digestive system is exposed to these through the food we eat. This includes things such as nano- or micro-plastics, or chemicals leaching out of the plastics into foods, such as PFAS (per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances).
While there is no definitive evidence linking chemicals to increased cancer risk in young people, this is an area of intense ongoing research. Reducing your use of and exposure to plastics and chemicals where possible is still probably a healthy thing to do.
If you have any concerns, and particularly if you have a family history of cancer, consult your doctor.
Sarah Diepstraten receives funding from Cure Cancer Australia and My Room Children’s Cancer Charity.
John (Eddie) La Marca receives funding from Cancer Council Victoria. He is affiliated with the Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute and the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research.
ER Report: Here is a summary of significant articles published on EveningReport.nz on July 8, 2025.
Being kind to people – the new challenge for the public service Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jennifer Smith-Merry, Director, Centre for Disability Research and Policy, University of Sydney When Labor was re-elected in May, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese used his acceptance speech to describe the type of country he wanted to lead. He spoke of how the Australian people had voted for fairness,
It’s harder than you think to become a top sports official in football, soccer and the rugby codes Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Kath O’Brien, Senior Lecturer – Faculty of Health (School Exercise & Nutrition Sciences), Queensland University of Technology Brendon Thorne/Getty Images Sport officials, regardless of which code they supervise, are appointed to be impartial figures. They have to quickly interpret infractions, adjudicate rules and communicate commands, all while
First it was ‘protein goals’, now TikTok is on about ‘fibre goals’. How can you meet yours? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Saman Khalesi, Senior Lecturer and Head of Course Nutrition, HealthWise Research Group Lead, Appleton Institute,, CQUniversity Australia Westend61/Getty Images “Protein goals” have long been a thing on TikTok and Instagram. But now social media users are also talking about “fibre goals”. This reflects a positive broader shift
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Australia is set to get more AI data centres. Local communities need to be more involved Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Bronwyn Cumbo, Transdisciplinary social researcher and lecturer, University of Technology Sydney A Google data centre in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. Richard Newstead/Getty Data centres are the engines of the internet. These large, high-security facilities host racks of servers that store and process our digital data, 24 hours a
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Cape Town’s sewage treatment isn’t coping: scientists are worried about what the city is telling the public Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Lesley Green, Professor of Earth Politics and Director: Environmental Humanities South, University of Cape Town Urban water bodies – rivers, lakes and oceans – are in trouble globally. Large sewage volumes damage the open environment, and new chemicals and pharmaceutical compounds don’t break down on their own.
View from The Hill: Albanese’s Curtin speech becomes latest political football in debate over US relationship Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of Canberra Anthony Albanese seems to find himself on eggshells whenever the Australian-American relationship comes up. After the G7 debacle, he’s persistently pursued – to his obvious irritation – by journalists asking when he’ll have his first face-to-face meeting with Donald Trump.
A Shakespearean, small-town murder: why Australia became so obsessed with the Erin Patterson mushroom case Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Xanthe Mallett, Criminologist, CQUniversity Australia The “mushroom murder trial”, as it has popularly become known, has gripped Australia over the past 11 weeks. More than that, it’s prompted worldwide headlines, multiple daily podcasts, and even YouTube videos of self-proclaimed “body language experts” assessing defendant Erin Patterson’s every
Peter Russell-Clarke’s greatest gift was how he made you feel like one of the family Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Wendy Hunt, Senior Lecturer, Academic Chair, Food Science and Nutrition, Murdoch University Impressions/Getty Images Throughout my teenage years, our lounge room sang “Come and get it, come and get it” and all in earshot would carol back, “with Peter. Russell. Clarke!” The chef, restaurateur, cookbook author and
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Erin Patterson has been found guilty in the mushroom murder trial. Legal experts explain why Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Rick Sarre, Emeritus Professor in Law and Criminal Justice, University of South Australia After seven weeks of evidence, six days of summing up, and six and a half days of jury deliberation in the Victorian Supreme Court sitting in Morwell, Victoria, the verdict is finally in. Erin
In Texas, parents search flood debris for missing kids. Are Australians ready for our own sudden floods? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Erica Kuligowski, Vice-Chancellor’s Senior Research Fellow, School of Engineering, RMIT University Harrowing stories are emerging in the wake of catastrophic and sudden flooding over the fourth of July weekend in Texas – where many people were camping, and children were at riverside summer camp. More than 80
What is rejection sensitive dysphoria in ADHD? And how can you manage it? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Victoria Barclay-Timmis, Adjunct Lecturer in Psychology, University of Southern Queensland Vitalii Khodzinskyi/Unsplash Imagine your friend hasn’t replied to a message in a few hours. Most people might think, “they are probably just busy”. But someone with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) might spiral into a flood of thoughts
NZDF not considering recruiting personnel from Pacific nations By Caleb Fotheringham, RNZ Pacific journalist The New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) is not considering recruiting personnel from across the Pacific as talk continues of Australia doing so for its Defence Force (ADF). In response to a question from The Australian at the National Press Club in Canberra about Australia’s plans to potentially recruit from
ER Report: Here is a summary of significant articles published on EveningReport.nz on July 8, 2025.
Being kind to people – the new challenge for the public service Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jennifer Smith-Merry, Director, Centre for Disability Research and Policy, University of Sydney When Labor was re-elected in May, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese used his acceptance speech to describe the type of country he wanted to lead. He spoke of how the Australian people had voted for fairness,
It’s harder than you think to become a top sports official in football, soccer and the rugby codes Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Kath O’Brien, Senior Lecturer – Faculty of Health (School Exercise & Nutrition Sciences), Queensland University of Technology Brendon Thorne/Getty Images Sport officials, regardless of which code they supervise, are appointed to be impartial figures. They have to quickly interpret infractions, adjudicate rules and communicate commands, all while
First it was ‘protein goals’, now TikTok is on about ‘fibre goals’. How can you meet yours? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Saman Khalesi, Senior Lecturer and Head of Course Nutrition, HealthWise Research Group Lead, Appleton Institute,, CQUniversity Australia Westend61/Getty Images “Protein goals” have long been a thing on TikTok and Instagram. But now social media users are also talking about “fibre goals”. This reflects a positive broader shift
Bougainville election process begins as writs issued for September poll RNZ Pacific The Bougainville election process begins today with the issuance of the writs yesterday. Nominations open Tuesday, July 8, and close on Thursday, July 10. Voting is scheduled for one week starting on September 2, allowing seven weeks of campaigning. Candidates will be vying for a total of 46 seats, with the autonomous Parliament
Australia is set to get more AI data centres. Local communities need to be more involved Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Bronwyn Cumbo, Transdisciplinary social researcher and lecturer, University of Technology Sydney A Google data centre in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. Richard Newstead/Getty Data centres are the engines of the internet. These large, high-security facilities host racks of servers that store and process our digital data, 24 hours a
If you have a pet as a kid, does this lower your risk of asthma and eczema? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Samantha Chan, Immunology and Allergy Lead, Snow Centre for Immune Health, WEHI (Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research) Catherine Delahaye/Getty Images As the number of people with allergies grows worldwide, scientists are trying to work out precisely how and why these conditions – such as
A top court has urged nations to clamp down on fossil fuel production. When will Australia finally start listening? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Wesley Morgan, Research Associate, Institute for Climate Risk and Response, UNSW Sydney GREG WOOD/AFP via Getty Images As Climate Change and Energy Minister Chris Bowen tours the Pacific this week to spruik his government’s commitment to climate action, fossil fuel exporters such as Australia are under unprecedented
Kumanjayi Walker inquest: racism and violence, but findings too little and too late Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Thalia Anthony, Professor of Law, University of Technology Sydney First Nations people please be advised this article speaks of racially discriminating moments in history, including the distress and death of First Nations people. The inquest findings into the death of 19-year-old Kumanjayi Walker are among the most
Cape Town’s sewage treatment isn’t coping: scientists are worried about what the city is telling the public Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Lesley Green, Professor of Earth Politics and Director: Environmental Humanities South, University of Cape Town Urban water bodies – rivers, lakes and oceans – are in trouble globally. Large sewage volumes damage the open environment, and new chemicals and pharmaceutical compounds don’t break down on their own.
View from The Hill: Albanese’s Curtin speech becomes latest political football in debate over US relationship Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of Canberra Anthony Albanese seems to find himself on eggshells whenever the Australian-American relationship comes up. After the G7 debacle, he’s persistently pursued – to his obvious irritation – by journalists asking when he’ll have his first face-to-face meeting with Donald Trump.
A Shakespearean, small-town murder: why Australia became so obsessed with the Erin Patterson mushroom case Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Xanthe Mallett, Criminologist, CQUniversity Australia The “mushroom murder trial”, as it has popularly become known, has gripped Australia over the past 11 weeks. More than that, it’s prompted worldwide headlines, multiple daily podcasts, and even YouTube videos of self-proclaimed “body language experts” assessing defendant Erin Patterson’s every
Peter Russell-Clarke’s greatest gift was how he made you feel like one of the family Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Wendy Hunt, Senior Lecturer, Academic Chair, Food Science and Nutrition, Murdoch University Impressions/Getty Images Throughout my teenage years, our lounge room sang “Come and get it, come and get it” and all in earshot would carol back, “with Peter. Russell. Clarke!” The chef, restaurateur, cookbook author and
Sleep divorce: could sleeping separately from your partner lead to a better night’s rest? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Alix Mellor, Research Fellow, Psychology, Monash University Cemile Bingol/Getty Images Hundreds of years ago, it was common for married couples among the European upper classes to have separate bedrooms. Sleeping separately was a symbol of luxury and status historically reserved for royalty and the very wealthy. Nowadays,
A test of political courage: Yoorrook’s final reports demand action, not amnesia Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Jeremie M Bracka, Law Lecturer and Transitional Justice Academic, RMIT University Australia’s colonial era may be formally over but its legacies of inequality, land dispossession and systemic racism continue to shape daily life for First Peoples. Last week, the Victorian Yoorrook Justice Commission delivered its two final
Erin Patterson has been found guilty in the mushroom murder trial. Legal experts explain why Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Rick Sarre, Emeritus Professor in Law and Criminal Justice, University of South Australia After seven weeks of evidence, six days of summing up, and six and a half days of jury deliberation in the Victorian Supreme Court sitting in Morwell, Victoria, the verdict is finally in. Erin
In Texas, parents search flood debris for missing kids. Are Australians ready for our own sudden floods? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Erica Kuligowski, Vice-Chancellor’s Senior Research Fellow, School of Engineering, RMIT University Harrowing stories are emerging in the wake of catastrophic and sudden flooding over the fourth of July weekend in Texas – where many people were camping, and children were at riverside summer camp. More than 80
What is rejection sensitive dysphoria in ADHD? And how can you manage it? Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Victoria Barclay-Timmis, Adjunct Lecturer in Psychology, University of Southern Queensland Vitalii Khodzinskyi/Unsplash Imagine your friend hasn’t replied to a message in a few hours. Most people might think, “they are probably just busy”. But someone with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) might spiral into a flood of thoughts
NZDF not considering recruiting personnel from Pacific nations By Caleb Fotheringham, RNZ Pacific journalist The New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) is not considering recruiting personnel from across the Pacific as talk continues of Australia doing so for its Defence Force (ADF). In response to a question from The Australian at the National Press Club in Canberra about Australia’s plans to potentially recruit from
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Kath O’Brien, Senior Lecturer – Faculty of Health (School Exercise & Nutrition Sciences), Queensland University of Technology
Sport officials, regardless of which code they supervise, are appointed to be impartial figures.
They have to quickly interpret infractions, adjudicate rules and communicate commands, all while maintaining the highest levels of objectivity and sense – not to mention the fitness required.
So, what does it take to become a sport official at the elite level, such as NRL referees or AFL umpires?
And why do so many sports fans think these officials are at fault when their team keeps getting penalised?
Recently, there were calls for Ashley Klein to be stripped of officiating duties for the third and final rugby league State of Origin clash after NRL commentators queried a one-sided penalty count in the Maroons’ favour during game two in Perth.
Likewise, the AFL recently faced criticism when video evidence revealed Collingwood’s Lachie Schultz had suffered a concussion, but the umpires in charge failed to stop play immediately, as they should have.
Every week, fans also voice their displeasure at perceived injustices, whether that be at the ground, watching on TV or venting on social media.
However, very few people fully understand the complexity or intricacies of what it takes to perform a sport official’s role, particularly at the elite level.
Elite officials must have detailed rule knowledge, incredible physical and mental fitness and be composed regardless of crowd pressure. They must be able to instantly move on from any mistakes made.
They also need situational awareness and a level of calmness to effectively supervise two groups of competitors fiercely battling against each other in these highly charged environments.
Figuratively speaking, this can be like emergency department (ED) doctors or air traffic controllers, who are required to manage multiple events and competing task demands in a calm and consistent manner.
Even though elite officials don’t work continuously for long hours like ED doctors or pilots – the total playing time of most of our winter sporting codes is generally between 90-120 minutes – the level of concentration, composure and mental toughness required is immense.
Making good decisions when both players and the ball are constantly shifting position also requires exceptional game understanding and an ability to convey decisions that are appropriate to the game context.
In other words, elite referees operate in situations in which time pressure, stress and high risk decision-making are always present.
So who would want to perform a role where coaches, fans and some sections of the media continually question your knowledge, integrity and skills?
Professional or part-time?
Currently, of Australia’s major winter codes, only the NRL has a full quota of referees who are full time, paid professionals.
Similarly, Rugby Australia has a small team of full-time professional referees who are appointed to Super League games and international matches not involving Australia, but most are part-timers.
In the AFL, most umpires work part-time, with pressure mounting on the league to transition its umpires into full-time positions as ongoing criticisms over controversial decisions continue to grow.
To reach those top pay levels, extensive on-field experience in lower grades is required. Those who stand out are selected in high-performance squads where specialist coaching is provided.
An often thankless task
So, do you think you have what it takes to be an elite sports official?
Could you maintain an optimal level of physical and cognitive performance while running at high speeds when you know every decision you make can be reviewed by video technology and re-watched in slow motion at one 25th of a second?
Referees are human. They make mistakes. Sometimes they have to follow a policy or refereeing method they might not agree with.
However, what we need to remember before we shout at them during a game is elite officials are trying to make games as fair, open, free flowing and entertaining as possible as they strive to impartially apply the rules of the game.
Kath O’Brien does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
When Labor was re-elected in May, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese used his acceptance speech to describe the type of country he wanted to lead.
He spoke of how the Australian people had voted for fairness, aspiration and opportunity for all:
For the strength to show courage in adversity and kindness to those in need. And Australians have voted for a future that holds true to these values.
Prime Minister Anthony Albanese election victory speech declaring the Australian people had voted for Australian values.
Noble sentiments from the prime minister.
But can this translate into real change in government organisations? How much work do they have to do to live up to Albanese’s mantra of fairness and kindness towards those in need?
Bureaucracy can be kind
It is important our public institutions, such as the Australian Public Service, are kind, even when they are deciding who can access limited public resources.
We conducted a review of academic research on organisational kindness to understand how organisations can be more generous to those they interact with.
We discovered public service processes often lack kindness, which causes distress and sometimes significant harm. Many people would be familiar with unkind interactions with public services that should be there to serve us, but sometimes make us feel like an enemy.
Kindness has positive benefits not just for the people being served, but for organisations themselves. Our research has found kindness contributes to profit, productivity, performance and favourable community perceptions.
A kinder organisation is also a more trusted one, which is essential for any public service – funded by the public – to retain legitimacy.
Lack of trust
The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) is a case in point.
In part this stemmed from previous traumatic experiences with accessing government agencies, which resulted in a lack of trust in other public services.
A study of NDIS participant experiences has also found complexity, poor communication, and confusing or inconsistent rules causes distress.
Another example is the combative approach by the NDIA to people’s complaints, which makes complaining distressing and adversarial.
Complaints are a legal, necessary aspect of a any organisation that services the public. But making it tortuous to complain is a lose-lose situation. It is not just unkind to the individual but problematic in effective running of public services.
What makes public services unkind?
Organisations may not set out to be unkind, but may become that way because of the way they work and think. They may see themselves in service of the public purse, rather than in service to the public.
Particularly in times of budget constraint – such as the 8% growth cap to the NDIS – helping people access services may be seen as undermining cost savings goals. This can lead to practices that degrade or even demonise people who deserve help.
Streamlining ways of working, cutting costs or even making decisions “fairer” by applying the same rules to everyone can be dehumanising.
This was most clear in the Morrison government’s Robodebt scheme. Assumptions were made about people based upon incomplete information gathered from administrative systems that did not fully reflect the lives of individuals. This had devastating consequences for many people, as outlined in the Royal Commission findings.
Institutions may also be influenced by political narratives about deserving versus undeserving welfare recipients which prejudice how they are viewed. The “lazy dole bludger” is a classic trope.
These narratives can result in unkind treatment when people need to access unemployment or disability benefits through Centrelink.
How can public institutions be kinder?
Being kind does not mean giving everyone everything they want, or even need.
While hard decisions are sometimes necessary, they can be made in ways considerate of the people receiving the decision.
We identified key barriers and enablers to organisational kindness.
The main hurdles related to organisational culture and entrenched practices which make kindness difficult.
Enablers for building a more generous approach include entrenching kindness as a core value within how organisational policies, processes and practices are structured.
Kindness must be built into the organisational fabric not just enabled at the point of contact with individuals accessing the service.
A kinder community
The values of public services should reflect community values. However, sometimes communities lack kindness as an implicit value or, as noted in the earlier example about welfare recipients, may lack kindness towards particular groups.
Broader kindness movements operating internationally include Kindness Singapore and Kindness UK. These movements aim to make kindness a core social value.
Australian public institutions have received a strong cue from the prime minister that kindness should also be a core business value when serving clients, especially those in need.
Jennifer Smith-Merry receives funding from the Australian Research Council through an Industry Laureate Fellowship. The National Disability Insurance Agency is a partner on that grant but had no involvement in this article. She is a member of the Grattan Institute Disability Program Reference Group.
Damian Mellifont, Justin Scanlan, and Nicola Hancock do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The Bougainville election process begins today with the issuance of the writs yesterday.
Nominations open Tuesday, July 8, and close on Thursday, July 10.
Voting is scheduled for one week starting on September 2, allowing seven weeks of campaigning.
Candidates will be vying for a total of 46 seats, with the autonomous Parliament agreeing earlier this year to add five additional seats.
The seats were created with the establishment of five new constituencies: two in South and Central, and one in North Bougainville.
“This is one of the most important democratic tasks of any nation — to conduct elections where the people exercise the ultimate power to re-elect or de-elect the representatives who have served them in the last House,” Bougainville Parliament Speaker Simon Pentanu said.
“The elections in Bougainville have always been fair, honest, transparent, and equitable. This is a history we should all be proud of and a record we must continue to uphold,” he said.
The region’s Electoral Commissioner Desmond Tsianai said the issuing of writs was a significant event in the electoral calendar.
“We have delivered credible elections in the past and I assure you all that we are prepared, and we will have this election delivered at international standards of free, fair and inclusive — and most importantly, according to the law.”
This article is republished under a community partnership agreement with RNZ.
The Bougainville election process begins today with the issuance of the writs yesterday.
Nominations open Tuesday, July 8, and close on Thursday, July 10.
Voting is scheduled for one week starting on September 2, allowing seven weeks of campaigning.
Candidates will be vying for a total of 46 seats, with the autonomous Parliament agreeing earlier this year to add five additional seats.
The seats were created with the establishment of five new constituencies: two in South and Central, and one in North Bougainville.
“This is one of the most important democratic tasks of any nation — to conduct elections where the people exercise the ultimate power to re-elect or de-elect the representatives who have served them in the last House,” Bougainville Parliament Speaker Simon Pentanu said.
“The elections in Bougainville have always been fair, honest, transparent, and equitable. This is a history we should all be proud of and a record we must continue to uphold,” he said.
The region’s Electoral Commissioner Desmond Tsianai said the issuing of writs was a significant event in the electoral calendar.
“We have delivered credible elections in the past and I assure you all that we are prepared, and we will have this election delivered at international standards of free, fair and inclusive — and most importantly, according to the law.”
This article is republished under a community partnership agreement with RNZ.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Saman Khalesi, Senior Lecturer and Head of Course Nutrition, HealthWise Research Group Lead, Appleton Institute,, CQUniversity Australia
“Protein goals” have long been a thing on TikTok and Instagram. But now social media users are also talking about “fibre goals”. This reflects a positive broader shift toward overall health and wellbeing rather than a narrow focus on weight loss or muscle gain.
Foods high in fibre are among the healthiest we can eat. Not getting enough can lead to constipation, haemorrhoids and boost the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and bowel cancer.
So what’s the expert evidence say about “fibre goals” and how to hit them?
Different types of fibre
Dietary fibres are indigestible parts of plant foods. Unlike other carbohydrates that break down into sugar, these complex carbs pass through our digestive tract mostly unchanged.
There are two main types of dietary fibre:
Soluble fibres dissolve in water to form gel-like substances. You can find these in fruits such as apples and berries, vegetables such as sweet potatoes and carrots, as well a legumes and oats.
Soluble fibres can slow down digestion and help us feel fuller for longer. They support heart health, lower blood cholesterol and help regulate blood sugar levels.
Insoluble fibres don’t dissolve in water, but add bulk to food. You can get this type of fibre from wheat bran, fruits and vegetable skins, nuts and seeds, beans and whole grain foods.
Insoluble fibres add bulk to the stool and help regulate bowel movements and reduce constipation.
Resistant starch is also a type of complex carb that isn’t technically a fibre, but behaves like one; it resists digestion and feeds gut bacteria. These are found in legumes, cooked potato, and undercooked pasta.
Unlike many fibre supplements (which often only offer one type of fibre) most sources of fibre we eat contain both soluble and insoluble forms. For example, oats, apples and avocado have both.
Both can be fermented by good gut bacteria, although soluble dietary fibres (and resistant starches) tend to ferment more readily.
Our gut bacteria rely on fermenting these fibres as a fuel to help digest foods, fight against pathogenic microbes such as germs and viruses, and improve physical and mental health.
five serves of vegetables (one serve is half a cup of cooked veggies or one cup of salad greens)
two to three serves of nuts and seeds (where one serve is about 30g or a handful) or two to three serves of legumes/beans (where one serve is a cup of cooked beans, lentils, chickpeas, split peas).
What not to do
Here are some important things to remember:
avoid drastic changes such as cutting out entire food groups or nutrients (such as carbohydrates) unless advised by your health practitioner. Even low-fibre food groups (such as dairy or lean meats) provide important nutrients. Avoiding them can potentially cause other health problems
avoid focusing on just one type of fibre (soluble or insoluble). Each has different benefits, so incorporating both is best
avoid a sudden increase in fibre. It can cause abdominal pain and increased flatulence. Start by adding just one or two high-fibre foods each day and slowly increase this over a few weeks
fibre needs water to work effectively, so drink plenty of fluids. Aim for at least eight to ten glasses of water per day.
How do I hit my goal without being a weirdo about it?
Eating well doesn’t need to be a competition.
It’s great people are sharing ideas on social media about increasing fibre intake and setting fibre goals, but we can do it without constantly obsessing over food.
Focus on gradual changes and incorporating fibre-rich foods naturally into your diet. Start by eating more fresh fruit and vegetables, and adding legumes and pulses (such as kidney beans and chickpeas) to meals.
Simple switches can go a long way. For example, swap refined grain products (such as white rice or white bread) for wholemeal or wholegrain varieties. If you like breakfast cereals, choose one with at least 5g of fibre per serve (read the nutrition panel on the packet).
Finally, listen to your body. If you experience any digestive discomfort or have certain conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome that requires managing your fibre intake, consult with a health-care professional.
Saman Khalesi is a committee member for Nutrition Society Australia Queensland Group and Queensland Cardiovascular Research Network.
Chris Irwin is a committee member for Nutrition Society Australia Queensland Regional Group.
Seyed Farhang Jafari does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The winter school holidays can be a tricky time for families. Parents are often juggling work and chilly conditions make it easy for kids to end up on the couch with multiple devices.
What other activities can you try? And how can you encourage the kids to move without it seeming like a massive chore or a punishment for everyone?
Here are some ideas for younger and older primary school children.
Meanwhile, we know excessive screen use is one of the top health concerns Australian parents have about their children.
What can you do for 5 to 8-year-olds?
In his 1560 painting Children’s Games, Pieter Bruegel depicts more than 80 of childhood games and play outside. This includes playing with balls, swinging, climbing a tree and imaginary games.
Many of these ideas still work today. So just like the children in Bruegel’s picture, embrace the outdoors. Remember it’s OK to get a bit wet or a bit muddy (even though, yes, this does mean more washing).
Think about going on an adventure to the city, cafe, library, or museum or simply finding local puddles to splash in. A change of scenery can do wonders for cabin fever.
Trips to the park or other nearby nature spots are also important. Research shows playing in green spaces improves children’s mental and emotional wellbeing.
Need more toys?
If you feel your toy cupboard is looking overly familiar, try a local Toy Library to borrow puzzles, board games and activities. Alternatively, arrange a toy swap with a trusted neighbour or friend.
Don’t underestimate the joy and novelty in doing the basic or everyday tasks but with more time, over the holidays. Cooking, baking, sending cards, writing letters and reading a book together are all excellent ways to connect and build memories.
You could also ask the kids to go and make an art exhibition or practise for a home dance or music concert while you make a cup or tea.
What about older primary kids?
Older children love to create, work together and connect with their peers.
So you could encourage your child or children to channel popular YouTubers and gamers by creating physical challenges at home, for example: a home holiday Olympics, safe Ninja-style circuit or obstacle course.
Or you could turn everyday chores into “missions” that earn rewards like having their favourite meal or a shopping trip.
Keep moving
You could break up sitting time by making TikTok style dances or doing physically challenges (how many star jumps can you do in a minute?) as often as possible.
If you have wearable tech, such as smart watches, you can track time spent being active. Set up a friendly competition for steps while playing with pets, cleaning up or dancing around the house.
A 2022 Australian study suggests the “break up your sitting” approach may result in children being more active than a simple “move more” message.
Also think about screen time that gets kids moving – such as sports-based games. Research shows the energy expended during active gaming is equivalent to a brisk walk. Not all screen time has to be sedentary.
Try a whole day ‘unplugged’
You could try a whole day without devices – this shows children it is possible!
Consider giving the kids more decision-making powers on these days: they could pick (and hopefully) make their meals, have a friend over, decide what games to play or what art and craft to make.
The winter holidays are a good time to set new active habits that won’t only help now, but will set the tone for the spring and longer summer breaks ahead.
Victoria Minson is the Course Coordinator for the Bachelor of Early Childhood Education (Birth to Five Years) (Accelerated) at Australian Catholic University. The Victorian offering of the course has received funding from the Victorian government and Victorian Department of Education. Victoria also receives funding from the Australian Research Council.
Amanda Telford has previously received funding from the ARC and NHMRC.
A Google data centre in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.Richard Newstead/Getty
Data centres are the engines of the internet. These large, high-security facilities host racks of servers that store and process our digital data, 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
There are already more than 250 data centres across Australia. But there are set to be more, as the federal government’s plans for digital infrastructure expansion gains traction. We recently saw tech giant Amazon’s recent pledge to invest an additional A$20 billion in new data centres across Sydney and Melbourne, alongside the development of three solar farms in Victoria and Queensland to help power them.
These developments will help cater to the surging demand for generative artificial intelligence (AI). They will also boost the national economy and increase Australia’s digital sovereignty – a global shift toward storing and managing data domestically under national laws.
But the everyday realities of communities living near these data centres aren’t as optimistic. And one key step toward mitigating these impacts is ensuring genuine community participation in shaping how Australia’s data-centre future is developed.
The sensory experience of data centres
Data centres are large, warehouse-like facilities. Their footprint typically ranges from 10,000 to 100,000 square metres. They are set on sites with backup generators and thousands of litres of stored diesel and enclosed by high-security fencing. Fluorescent lighting illuminates them every hour of the day.
A data centre can emanate temperatures of 35°C to 45°C. To prevent the servers from overheating, air conditioners are continuously humming. In water-cooled facilities, water pipes transport gigalitres of cool water through the data centre each day to absorb the heat produced.
In some places where many data centres have been built, such as Northern Virginia in the United States and Dublin in Ireland, communities have reported rising energy and water prices. They have also reported water shortages and the degradation of valued natural and historical sites.
They have also experienced economic impacts. While data centre construction generates high levels of employment, these facilities tend to employ a relatively small number of staff when they are operating.
These impacts have prompted some communities to push back against new data centre developments. Some communities have even filed lawsuits to halt proposed projects due to concerns about water security, environmental harm and heavy reliance on fossil fuels.
A unique opportunity
To date, communities in Australia have been buffered from the impacts of data centres. This is largely because Australia has outsourced most of its digital storage and processing needs (and associated impacts) to data centres overseas.
But this is now changing. As Australia rapidly expands its digital infrastructure, the question of who gets to shape its future becomes increasingly important.
To avoid amplifying the social inequities and environmental challenges of data centres, the tech industry and governments across Australia need to include the communities who will live alongside these crucial pieces of digital infrastructure.
This presents Australia with a unique opportunity to set the standard for creating a sustainable and inclusive digital future.
A path to authentic community participation
Current planning protocols for data centres limit community input. But there are three key steps data centre developers and governments can take to ensure individual developments – and the broader data centre industry – reflect the values, priorities and aspirations of local communities.
1. Developing critical awareness about data centres
People want a greater understanding of what data centres are, and how they will affect their everyday lives.
For example, what will data centres look, sound and feel like to live alongside? How will they affect access to drinking water during the next drought? Or water and energy prices during the peak of summer or winter?
Genuinely engaging with these questions is a crucial step toward empowering communities to take part in informed conversations about data centre developments in their neighbourhoods.
2. Involving communities early in the planning process
Data centres are often designed using generic templates, with minimal adaptation to local conditions or concerns. Yet each development site has a unique social and ecological context.
By involving communities early in the planning process, developers can access invaluable local knowledge about culturally significant sites, biodiversity corridors, water-sensitive areas and existing sustainability strategies that may be overlooked in state-level planning frameworks.
This kind of local insight can help tailor developments to reduce harm, enhance benefits, and ensure local priorities are not just heard, but built into the infrastructure itself.
3. Creating more inclusive visions of Australia’s data centre industry
Communities understand the importance of digital infrastructure and are generally supportive of equitable digital access. But they want to see the data centre industry grow in ways that acknowledges their everyday lives, values and priorities.
To create a more inclusive future, governments and industry can work with communities to broaden their “clean” visions of digital innovation and economic prosperity to include the “messy” realities, uncertainties and everyday aspirations of those living alongside data centre developments.
This approach will foster greater community trust and is essential for building more complex, human-centred visions of the tech industry’s future.
Bronwyn Cumbo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
As Climate Change and Energy Minister Chris Bowen tours the Pacific this week to spruik his government’s commitment to climate action, fossil fuel exporters such as Australia are under unprecedented scrutiny.
In a landmark ruling on Friday, Latin America’s highest human rights court found countries in that region are legally obliged to protect people from climate harms. The obligation includes tougher government regulations for fossil fuel extraction.
The finding applies to nations in the Organization of American States. But it adds to a growing number of international rulings clarifying nations’ legal obligations to tackle the climate crisis – especially if they export fossil fuels.
Australia is a major fossil-fuel exporter. When coal and gas mined in Australia is burned overseas, emissions are three times those of our entire domestic economy.
Since 2000, Australia has approved more than 700 oil, gas and coal projects. This includes federal approval in May for Woodside’s North West Shelf project – a huge expansion of gas production off Western Australia.
Emissions from these projects damage Earth’s climate, increasing the risk of harm to people around the world.
As climate change worsens, the United Nations and others are calling on countries to phase out fossil fuel production. A string of litigation involving human rights and the environment is adding to the pressure.
In a ruling handed down late last week, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights said people have the right to a stable climate and that states should regulate fossil fuel extraction and exploration.
take effective measures to combat climate change and related human rights impacts, to conduct appropriate due diligence, to adopt transition plans, and to provide accurate information regarding the impacts of their operations on climate change and human rights.
The ruling was an “advisory opinion”, and not legally binding. But it establishes the law on human rights obligations for the nations involved, and interpretations of international law for other nations.
Pictured: judges from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. JOHAN ORDONEZ/AFP via Getty Images
The campaign for the case was launched in 2019 by a group of law students at the University of the South Pacific.
This ruling will apply directly to Australia. Judges in the case are likely to take into account the findings of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights – and Australian policymakers will be watching closely.
International law is catching up with the science
Key instruments of international law, such as the UN Human Rights Conventions, were developed in the decades before a scientific consensus on global warming.
But the science has moved on. And it’s now clear that nations have legal obligations to prevent human rights harms arising from climate change.
In May this year, UN Special Rapporteur on Climate Change and Human Rights, Elisa Morgera, called on nations to end new fossil fuel projects and begin phasing out of fossil fuel production this decade, to protect human rights.
Australia hasargued only the Paris Agreement – which requires countries to set targets to cut domestic emissions – should apply when it comes to mitigating climate change. It has also argued protecting human rights does not extend to obligations to tackle climate change by cutting emissions.
Such arguments have now been rejected by international courts and tribunals. Continuing to approve new fossil fuel projects, with no plan to phase out fossil fuel production, puts Australia in violation of international legal obligations.
Australia’s obligations are also being considered in domestic cases. For instance, the Federal Court is next week due to hand down a decision on the government’s obligations to cut emissions to protect Torres Strait Islanders from climate impacts. If successful, the case may force the federal government to rapidly reduce emissions.
The law is not on Australia’s side
On his trip to the Pacific this week, Chris Bowen will emphasise Australia’s commitment to tackling climate change, and progress discussions on the joint Australia–Pacific bid to host the global COP31 climate talks next year. He told the media:
Australia and the Pacific’s joint bid for COP31 is about ensuring that the region’s voice shapes global climate action for the benefit of the Australian and Pacific people.
I look forward to deepening our cooperation with Pacific neighbours; not only to build a fairer, cleaner energy future, but to bring COP31 home for our region in 2026.
People in the Pacific now know international law is on their side. Ultimately, a managed shift away from fossil fuels is inevitable – and the time for Australian policymakers to ignore the industry’s climate harms is ending.
Wesley Morgan is a fellow with the Climate Council of Australia.
Gillian Moon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Samantha Chan, Immunology and Allergy Lead, Snow Centre for Immune Health, WEHI (Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research)
As the number of people with allergies grows worldwide, scientists are trying to work out precisely how and why these conditions – such as asthma and eczema – develop.
One long-standing idea is the “hygiene hypothesis”. This suggests our modern indoor lifestyles are to blame, as they limit our early exposure to germs and allergens which help train the immune system.
But growing evidence suggests having a pet may counter this effect. As any pet owner knows, our furry friends bring a lot of mess, germs and fur into our homes – along with the cuddles.
So, does spending time with animals lower children’s risk of allergies? Here’s what we know.
How allergies develop
During early childhood, our immune systems learn what to attack and what to ignore to stop us getting sick.
Evidence suggests early exposure – to family members, food, germs, dust, dirt, pollen and pet dander (skin flakes) – shapes this immune response.
Allergic conditions develop when the immune system overreacts to harmless substances, such as dust, pollen or certain foods. These reactions can affect the skin, airways and gut.
Dogs bring both love and mess – which might be just what a developing immune system needs. Samantha Chan/Author provided, CC BY-NC-ND
However, we still don’t fully understand why some people develop allergies while others don’t.
Scientists have identified genes linked to allergic conditions. But most have subtle effects on the immune system and act as “risk factors” – they increase the chance of disease but don’t cause it outright.
Recent research suggests exposure to bacteria in our environment could be another major factor.
From birth, our bodies are colonised by bacteria, especially in the gut. This community of microorganisms is known as the microbiome.
Ongoing “crosstalk” between the microbiome and immune system is crucial for healthy immune function. When this balance is disturbed, it can contribute to inflammation and disease.
The effect of our early environment
In the last few decades, studies of children raised on farms gave us some of the first clues that early environments can affect allergy risk.
Compared to children raised in cities, children on farms are less likely to have allergic conditions such as eczema and asthma. This is especially true of those in close contact with animals.
Notably, farm-raised children tend to develop a more diverse microbiome than children raised in urban environments. This may help make their immune system more tolerant to foreign substances (such as bacteria and dirt) and less likely to develop allergies.
However, across the world children are increasingly living in urban areas.
This means a pet may be the closest contact they have with animals. So, does this still lower their risk of developing allergies?
Some studies indicate children with pets may be less likely to have allergies.
However this evidence hasn’t always been easy to interpret.
It can be difficult to tell whether lower allergy rates are due to the pets themselves or other factors, such as location, lifestyle or a family history of allergies.
A review of results from 23 studies found children exposed to dogs early in life were significantly less likely to develop eczema.
Another 2025 study analysed genetic data from more than 270,000 people. It found a gene linked to eczema only increased risk of eczema in children who hadn’t been exposed to dogs.
This suggests early dog exposure may help protect children who are genetically more likely to develop eczema.
What about asthma?
When it comes to asthma, the story gets trickier.
One 2001 study followed more than 1,000 children in the United States from birth to age 13. It found those living with dogs indoors were less likely to develop frequent wheezing – a common asthma symptom – but only if they didn’t have a family history of asthma.
A Korean study from 2021 found those who had dogs during childhood were less likely to develop allergies. But they had a slightly higher risk of non-allergic wheeze — a type of breathing difficulty usually caused by airway irritation or infections (not allergens).
This suggests while growing up with a dog may protect against allergic conditions, such as asthma, it may increase the chance of certain non-allergic respiratory symptoms.
What about cats?
It’s challenging to tease apart the specific effects of cats versus dogs, since many early studies grouped all furry pets together.
But in studies that have looked at them separately, living with cats didn’t seem to reduce allergy risk.
One potential reason is cats and dogs carry very different microbes, which may influence how they shape the household environment.
If you’re already thinking about getting a dog, there’s decent evidence early exposure could reduce your child’s risk of eczema, and possibly other allergic conditions too.
It’s not a guarantee, but a potential bonus – alongside companionship, joy and never having to worry about what to do with leftovers.
And if a dog’s not on the cards, don’t worry. Spending time outdoors, encouraging messy play, and avoiding overuse of disinfectants can all help build a more resilient immune response.
Samantha Chan has served on advisory boards for CSL Behring. She is in receipt of funding from the Allergy and Immunology Foundation Australia and Walter & Eliza Hall Institute. She is affiliated with the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology and European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. She is a physician for the Snow Centre for Immune Health, funded by the Snow Medical Research Foundation.
In the past five years, Jo Douglass has served on advisory boards, provided advice or undertaken presentations on behalf of Astra-Zeneca P/L, GSK, CSL, Stallergenes, Immunosis P/L , Novartis and Sanofi. She is in receipt of funding from the Medical Research Future Fund for studies in allergic asthma. She is a clinical co-director of the Snow Centre for Immune Health, funded by the Snow Medical Research Foundation.
New Zealand is among a number of countries that encourage vaping (the use of e-cigarettes) as a tool to help people stop smoking tobacco. But what happens when people want to quit vaping?
Nicotine vapes can be addictive. While they have helped many New Zealanders quit smoking cigarettes, others – including people who never smoked – now find themselves wanting to quit vaping.
To better understand how and why people try to quit, we surveyed more than 1,000 people in Aotearoa New Zealand who have used nicotine vapes.
The findings from our study point to a need for support that treats vaping cessation like quitting smoking because for many, the challenges are similar.
We focused on New Zealanders aged 16 and over who had vaped nicotine. Of the 1,119 respondents, 401 currently vaped and 718 had quit vaping. Around one in eight had never smoked tobacco at all.
We found using vapes for more than two years and with nicotine concentrations above 3% was linked to higher dependence on vaping. Most current or past vapers wanted to stop, and more than three-quarters of participants had made up to three serious attempts to quit vaping.
How people try to stop vaping
Some people wanted to quit vaping because what began as a tool to support quitting smoking has become a new source of frustration or worry.
The most common reasons to stop vaping were concerns about current or future health, disliking the feeling of being dependent, and the cost of vaping products. These motivations echo the reasons many people cite for quitting smoking, suggesting that people who vape (like most people who smoke) do not want to remain hooked on nicotine, even if it helped them quit cigarettes.
Participants used a variety of strategies to quit, including abrupt cessation (“cold turkey”), switching to other forms of reduced-harm nicotine (such as nicotine patches, gums, lozenges, mouth sprays), and tapering down nicotine levels. Many also relied on support from whānau (family) and friends.
These strategies mirror those used in smoking cessation.
Our participants reiterate the importance of personal strategies, building on previous work on interventions that target vaping cessation.
Some people did quit vaping and had no problem quitting. However, others struggled. Triggers that cause a relapse to vaping are similar to those many people who smoke experience, including stress and symptoms of nicotine withdrawal.
Being around others who vape is also a trigger for relapse. These factors highlight the social and psychological effects of vaping, just as they have long been recognised in tobacco addiction research.
Importantly, these triggers appeared consistent across different groups regardless of age, gender, cultural background or smoking history. Whether someone vaped to stop smoking or whether vaping was the first nicotine product they tried, quitting came with similar challenges.
Better support for vaping cessation
Our study suggests many New Zealanders are now trying to quit nicotine vapes, and some face real barriers to doing so.
We think existing smoking-cessation support and medications could play a useful role. These tools include behavioural support, such as building self-belief in the ability to quit, identifying key triggers (and strategies to avoid them), stress management strategies, and access to tapering schedules (cutting down the frequency of vaping over time or gradually reducing nicotine concentration).
As previous work shows, the type of support needed may differ between older tobacco smokers and the growing population of teens taking up vaping.
Vaping as an exit from tobacco smoking should still be offered to people who smoke. Once vaping is taken up, it should be promoted as a medium-term, step-down tactic (3–12 months), while ensuring that relapse to smoking is avoided. Such a strategy aligns with vaping-cessation guidance provided in the United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand.
For some, vaping becomes a habit they want to quit in its own right, but it may not always be easy given the addictive nature of nicotine. We need dedicated support for vaping cessation to address this growing concern.
Findings from our survey have been key to the development of a New Zealand vaping-cessation clinical trial currently underway. People who are interested in quitting vaping can find out more and register their interest.
This study was supported by a grant from the University of Auckland, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences Research and Development Fund.
Amanda Palmer has received funding from the US National Institutes of Health and Hollings Cancer Center at the Medical University of South Carolina.
Bodo Lang has received funding from the Health Research Council of NZ.
Chris Bullen receives funding from the Health Research Council of NZ, Ministry of Health and US NIH for research projects on smoking and vaping and personal funding from Kenvue Asia for cochairing ASEAN smoking-cessation leadership meetings. He co-chairs the smokefree expert advisory group for Health Coalition Aotearoa.
George Laking has received funding from the Health Research Council of NZ.
Jamie Brown has received (most recently in 2018) unrestricted funding to study smoking cessation from Pfizer and J&J, which manufacture medically licensed smoking cessation medications.
Lion Shahab received personal fees from a grant funded by the US National Cancer Institute as part of his role as a member of an external scientific advisory committee outside of the submitted work. He also acted as a paid reviewer for grant awarding bodies and as a paid consultant for health-care companies and, in the past, has received honoraria for talks, an unrestricted research grant, and travel expenses to attend meetings and workshops by producers of smoking cessation medication (Pfizer/Johnson&Johnson).
Natalie Walker has received personal fees from a grant funded by the US National Cancer Institute as part of her role as a member of the external scientific advisory committee. She is involved in a grant (in-kind) supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. She also received grants from the Health Research Council of NZ and funds from the US National Institute for Health and the Food and Drug Administration tobacco regulatory science grant. She has acted as a paid reviewer for grant awarding bodies. She has no financial links with tobacco companies, e-cigarette manufacturers, or their representatives.
Vili Nosa has received funding from the Health Research Council of NZ.
Source: The Conversation (Au and NZ) – By Lesley Green, Professor of Earth Politics and Director: Environmental Humanities South, University of Cape Town
Urban water bodies – rivers, lakes and oceans – are in trouble globally. Large sewage volumes damage the open environment, and new chemicals and pharmaceutical compounds don’t break down on their own. When they are released into the open environment, they build up in living tissues all along the food chain, bringing with them multiple health risks.
The city of Cape Town, South Africa, is no exception. It has 300km of coastline along two bays and a peninsula, as well as multiple rivers and wetlands. The city discharges more than 40 megalitres of raw sewage directly into the Atlantic Ocean every day. In addition, large volumes of poorly treated sewage and runoff from shack settlements enter rivers and from there into both the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans.
Over almost a decade, our multi-disciplinary team, and others, have studied contamination risks in Cape Town’s oceans, rivers, aquifers and lakes. Our goal has been to bring evidence of contaminants to the attention of officials responsible for a clean environment.
Monitoring sewage levels in the city’s water bodies is essential because of the health risks posed by contaminated water to all citizens – farmers, surfers, and everybody eating fish and vegetables. Monitoring needs to be done scientifically and in a way that produces data that is trustworthy and not driven by vested interests. This is a challenge in cities where scientific findings are expected to support marketing of tourism or excellence of the political administration.
Cape Town’s official municipal responses to independent studies and reports, however, have been hostile. Our work has been unjustifiably denounced by top city officials and politicians. We have been subject to attacks by fake social media avatars. Laboratory studies have even received a demand for an apology from the political party in charge of the city.
These extraordinary responses – and many others – reflect the extent to which independent scientific inquiry has been under attack.
We set about tracking the different kinds of denial and attacks on independent contaminant science in Cape Town over 11 years. Our recently published study describes 18 different types of science communication that have minimised or denied the problem of contamination. It builds on similarstudieselsewhere.
Our findings show the extent to which contaminant science in Cape Town is at risk of producing not public knowledge but public ignorance, reflecting similar patterns internationally where science communication sometimes obfuscates more than it informs. To address this risk, we argue that institutionalised conflicts of interest should be removed. There should also be changes to how city-funded testing is done and when data is released to citizens. After all, it is citizens’ rates and taxes that have paid for that testing, and the South African constitution guarantees the right to information.
We also propose that the city’s political leaders take the courageous step of accepting that the current water treatment infrastructure is unworkable for a city of over 5 million people. Accepting this would open the door to an overhaul of the city’s approach to wastewater treatment.
The way forward
We divided our study of contaminant communication events into four sub-categories:
non-disclosure of data
misinformation that gives a partial or misleading account of a scientific finding
using city-funded science to bolster political authority
relying on point data collected fortnightly to prove “the truth” of bodies of water as if it never moves or changes, when in reality, water bodies move every second of every day.
We found evidence of multiple instances of miscommunication. On the basis of these, we make specific recommendations.
First: municipalities should address conflicts of interest that are built into their organisational structure. These arise when the people responsible for ensuring that water bodies are healthy are simultaneously contracting consultants to conduct research on water contaminants. This is particularly important because over the last two decades large consultancies have established themselves as providers of scientific certification. But they are profit-making ventures, which calls into question the independence of their findings.
Second: the issue of data release needs to be addressed. Two particular problems stand out:
Real-time information. Water quality results for beaches are usually released a week or more after samples have been taken. But because water moves all the time every day, people living in the city need real-time information. Best-practice water contamination measures use water current models to predict where contaminated water will be, given each day’s different winds and temperatures.
Poor and incomplete data. When ocean contaminant data is released as a 12-month rolling average, all the very high values are smoothed out. The end result is a figure that does not communicate the reality of risks under different conditions.
Third: Politicians should be accountable for their public statements on science. Independent and authoritative scientific bodies, such as the Academy of Science of South Africa, should be empowered to audit municipal science communications.
Fourth: Reputational harm to the science community must stop. Government officials claiming that they alone know a scientific truth and denouncing independent scientists with other data closes down the culture of scientific inquiry. And it silences others.
Fifth: The integrity of scientific findings needs to be protected. Many cities, including Cape Town, rely on corporate brand management and political reputation management. Nevertheless, cities, by their very nature, have to deal with sewage, wastes and runoff. Public science communication that is based on marketing strategies prioritises advancing a brand (whether of a political party or a tourist destination). The risk is that city-funded science is turned into advertising and is presented as unquestionable.
Finally, Cape Town needs political leaders who are courageous enough to confront two evident realities. Current science communications in the city are not serving the public well, and wastewater treatment systems that use rivers and oceans as open sewers are a solution designed a century ago. Both urgently need to be reconfigured.
Next steps
As a team of independent contaminant researchers we have worked alongside communities where health, ecology, livestock and recreation have been profoundly harmed by ongoing contamination. We have documented these effects, only to hear the evidence denied by officials.
We recognise and value the beginnings of some new steps to data transparency in Cape Town’s mayoral office, like rescinding the 2021 by-law that banned independent scientific testing of open water bodies, almost all of which are classified as nature reserves.
We would welcome a dialogue on building strong and credible public science communications.
This study is dedicated to the memory of Mpharu Hloyi, head of Scientific Services in the City of Cape Town, in acknowledgement of her dedication to the health of urban bodies of water. Her untimely passing was a loss for all.
This article also drew on Masters theses written by Melissa Zackon and Amy Beukes.
Lesley Green has received funding from the Science for Africa Foundation; the Seed Box MISTRA Formas Environmental Humanities Collaboratory; and the Science For Africa Foundation’s DELTAS Africa II program (Del:22-010).
Cecilia Yejide Ojemaye receives funding from the University of Cape Town Carnegie DEAL Sustainable Development Goals Research Fellowship and the National Research Foundation for the SanOcean grant from the South Africa‐Norway Cooperation on Ocean Research (UID 118754).
Leslie Petrik received funding from National Research Foundation for the SanOcean grant from the South Africa‐Norway Cooperation on Ocean Research (UID 118754) for this study.
Nikiwe Solomon received funding at different stages for PhD research from the Water Research Commission (WRC) and National Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS), in collaboration with the South African Humanities Deans Association (SAHUDA). Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the WRC, NIHSS and SAHUDA.
Jo Barnes and Vanessa Farr do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
First Nations people please be advised this article speaks of racially discriminating moments in history, including the distress and death of First Nations people.
The inquest findings into the death of 19-year-old Kumanjayi Walker are among the most anticipated in the history of deaths in custody.
It is almost six years since Walker was shot point blank three times by former Northern Territory (NT) Police constable Zachary Rolfe. These events occurred on the evening of November 9 2019 in a family home of Walker, as Warlpiri people of the remote Central Australian community of Yuendumu listened in fear.
In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, Chief Minister Michael Gunner promised “consequences would flow”.
In 2022, Rolfe was tried for murder and the alternate charges of manslaughter and violent act causing death. The first, non-lethal, shot was conceded by the prosecution to be in self-defence. The fatal second and third shots were the basis for the prosecution.
The jury, with no Aboriginalrepresentation, decided in March 2022 that self-defence also applied to the subsequent shots, and Rolfe was found not guilty.
Legal experts have since contended that the first shot was not an act of self-defence, given Rolfe unlawfully ambushed Walker without permission to enter the home. They also maintain Rolfe’s history of racial violence and slurs against Aboriginal people should have been admissible evidence given their relevance to Rolfe’s conduct on the night of November 9.
Following the trial, in September 2022 the inquest into Kumanjayi Walker’s death commenced. The coroner’s role is to determine the causes of Walker’s death.
The issue of police racism, generally in the NT Police and specifically on the part of Rolfe, came within the scope of the inquest, along with Rolfe’s allegedly violent practices towards Aboriginal people, police relations with Aboriginal people in remote communities, and the use of police weapons, especially firearms.
The inquest has been a litmus test for racism in police forces. The Yuendumu community has sought findings of racism and recommendations to redress this wicked problem, including disciplinary action for racist and violent police officers.
The inquest was originally due to conclude in December 2022, but was substantially delayed based on a number of applications and appeals from Rolfe.
Rolfe requested for Coroner Armitage to remove herself from the inquest based on perceived bias against him. He also refused to give evidence to the inquest, on the basis that his evidence would implicate him. Multiple appeals to higher courts were unsuccessful but time-consuming.
Walker’s family expressed concerns that the significant delays in the inquest have been detrimental to their plight.
A fortnight before the inquest findings were due to be delivered, another young Warlpiri man, 24-year-old Kumanjayi White from Yuendumu, was killed by police in May 2024. This set back the findings and reopened wounds endured by the Yuendumu community. Once again, the community has had to remobilise to campaign for justice. It has added to the sentiment of the community, which was expressed by Kumanjayi White’s grandfather Ned Jampijinpa Hargraves: “we do not trust police”.
What did the inquest reveal?
This inquest, more than any other in recent history, has put into sharp relief the violence of the police force. It received evidence of text messages in which Rolfe described Aboriginal people as “neanderthals who drink too much alcohol” and referred to Aboriginal people as “coon”.
Footage was shown of Rolfe’s use of violence towards Aboriginal people. Forty-six incidents of violence, including punching Aboriginal people and rendering them unconscious, had been recorded between 2016 and 2019. Some of these attacks were the subject of professional standards and legal complaints. The inquest heard of the failure of police and prosecutors to investigate.
However, the racism was not confined to Rolfe. Evidence of a culture of racism disclosed that it was endemic up to the highest levels. There was “normalised” and widespread use of racist language towards Aboriginal people, including use of the “n-word”.
Rolfe provided evidence of the police annual racist awards (“Coon of the Year”) and officers who would describe a pub that Aboriginal people attended as the “animal bar”.
The fact a white police officer, Rolfe, disclosed the racism gave it a legitimacy and widespread coverage that the Yuendumu community was unable to garner.
The inquest identified issues with the substantial recruitment of former Australian Defence Force (ADF) personnel to the NT Police. Rolfe, who served in Afghanistan, gave evidence he was trained by the ADF to dehumanise the “enemy”.
The inquest also heard that NT police officers who had served in the ADF were twice as likely to draw a firearm than non-ADF police officers. This use of force raised important questions around police recruitment.
Leanne Liddle, who at the time was director of the NT government’s Aboriginal Justice Unit and conducted consultations across remote communities on criminal justice, gave evidence to the inquest that racism in the police was “systemic”.
Findings and recommendations
The findings of the coroner have identified acts of racism but have not delivered a crushing blow to racial violence in the NT Police. The recommendations do not seek to transform the force’s practices or dilute its powers.
The coroner’s starting point in her findings delivered at Yuendumu was that police should be able to “defend themselves” against “serious attacks”. Coroner Armitage acknowledged the “stress” endured by Rolfe and his family along with the trauma of Walker’s family.
While evidence before the inquest identified Rolfe’s days of planning around Walker’s forceful arrest, the coroner first considered Walker’s conduct, upbringing and circumstances that led to his death. The coroner did not give attention to the privilege of Rolfe’s background and how this may have contributed to his treatment of Aboriginal people in central Australia, including Walker.
Racism was “normalised” in the Alice Springs police station, including on the part of Rolfe. Racism “could have” contributed to Rolfe’s shooting of Walker. The coroner stopped short of finding systemic racism in NT Police due to the “modest amount of evidence on racism” across the police force. Arguably this inquest heard the most substantial evidence of institutional police racism in the history of inquests into deaths in custody. She determined that a separate inquiry into systemic racism was required given that the NT Police force had “significant hallmarks of institutional racism”.
The coroner also noted Alice Springs police officers are on the “receiving end” of racist comments from Aboriginal people.
Police racism, according to the coroner, existed because the officers are overwhelmingly dealing with Aboriginal people on a “negative” basis.
Rolfe used excessive force in his career as a police officer, and due to his dehumanisation of Aboriginal arrestees, had created a dangerous situation on November 9.
Ultimately, Walker’s death in custody arose from Rolfe’s “flawed decisions”.
Since Walker’s death in custody, NT Police have undertaken “significant changes”.
NT Police should strengthen its anti-racism strategy and publicly report on compliance
Mutual respect agreements should be developed between NT Police and Yuendumu
The NT government should enhance support for the Yuendumu community night patrol, youth services, mediators, and diversion and rehabilitation programs
NT Police should engage directly with Yuendumu leadership groups to discuss concerns, including when it would be appropriate for police not to carry firearms.
Where to from here?
The almost six years since the shooting of Kumanjayi Walker have not delivered on Chief Minister Michael Gunner’s promise that “consequences would flow”.
The inquest findings do not bring the community any closer to consequences. There was no disciplinary action recommended for any officer involved in Walker’s death. The coroner also did not recommend consequences for police with a history of using force against Aboriginal people, or those who have expressed racist attitudes or behaved in racist ways.
To date, Rolfe, or Adam Erbel who was restraining Walker at the time of the shooting, have not apologised for Walker’s death.
The coroner also did not set down recommendations that had consequence for NT Police. These might have included reconstituting the force to make it community-oriented, relying less on force and not carrying firearms in remote communities, or redirecting funds to NT Aboriginal remote community-controlled law and justice groups.
Even the modest recommendations that were made may not see the light of day in government policy or police practice. There is no legally enforceable obligation for governments and agencies to implement coronial recommendations, despite the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody recommending governments routinely adopt inquest recommendations and report on their implementation.
The NT government has stipulated that it decides which coronial recommendations to accept. The implementation of coronial recommendations in the NT has a sordid history.
In a climate of expanding police numbers and powers in the NT, with an additional 200 police being recruited to add to the already highest police ratio in the country, Aboriginal deaths in custody will continue to happen. This was the clarion call of the royal commission: more police and police powers will result in more deaths in custody.
Walker’s is one of the 598 deaths since the royal commission, and the brutal circumstances of his death show little has changed. The coronial recommendations fall short of calling for the structural overhaul demanded by Aboriginal families and advocates, to eradicate police racial violence from the lives of Aboriginal people in the NT.
Thalia Anthony receives funding from the Australian Research Council.
Eddie Cubillo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The “mushroom murder trial”, as it has popularly become known, has gripped Australia over the past 11 weeks. More than that, it’s prompted worldwide headlines, multiple daily podcasts, and even YouTube videos of self-proclaimed “body language experts” assessing defendant Erin Patterson’s every move.
There’s an ABC drama series in the works. Acclaimed Australian author Helen Garner has been in the courtroom.
But why did this tragedy, in which three people died and a fourth was lucky to survive, grip the public consciousness in way no other contemporary Australian case has?
On July 29 2023, in a sleepy town called Leongatha in the foothills of the Strzelecki Ranges in Victoria, a very normal woman called Erin Patterson made an ostensibly very normal lunch of beef wellington.
She was cooking for her in-laws, Gail and Don Patterson, Gail’s sister Heather Wilkinson, and Heather’s husband Ian. Erin’s estranged husband, Simon Patterson, was also invited, but chose not to attend.
Simon and Erin had two children, a boy and a girl, who did not attend the lunch either.
Shortly after the lunch, all four guests were admitted to hospital with suspected gastroenteritis. Erin Patterson also presented to hospital, but refused to be admitted.
Within a few days, Gail, Don, and Heather all died as a result of what was later confirmed as poisoning with Amanita phalloides, better known as death cap mushrooms.
Ian survived, but he was lucky. He spent seven weeks in hospital and needed a liver transplant.
The questions became, how did the mushrooms get into the beef wellington? Was this an awful accident or something more sinister?
Public obsession
These questions became the focus of very significant public and media attention.
Erin Patterson spoke to the media in the days after the incident. She presented as your typical, average woman of 50.
That is, in my opinion, where the obsession with this case began.
This case had the feel of a Shakespearean drama: multiple deaths within one family, death by poison, and a female protagonist.
The juxtaposition between the normality of a family lunch (and the sheer vanilla-ness of the accused) and the seriousness of the situation sent the media into overdrive.
Then there were the lies. Patterson lied about foraging for mushrooms, and about having cancer to encourage the guests to attend.
The location also played a huge part. Leongatha is known for its staggering natural beauty and thriving food and wine scene. It’s hardly a place where the world expected a mass murderer to live.
However, the perception that rural areas are utopias of safety and social cohesion, and cities are dark and dangerous places, is a myth.
One study by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare paints a different picture.
For serious assault cases that resulted in hospitalisation, for major cities the rates were 65 per 100,000 people. In rural areas, this rose to 1,244 people per 100,000. And for murder, in very remote areas the rate was five per 100,000 population, but fewer than one per 100,000 in urban areas.
Then there was Erin Patterson’s unusual behaviour. She disposed of the desiccator in which the mushrooms she had foraged were dehydrated. She used multiple phones, one of which underwent multiple factory resets on in the days following the lunch. One of these resets was done remotely after police seized her phone.
There are also the much-discussed plates. The court heard she prepared her meal on a different-coloured plate to those of her other guests so they were easily identifiable.
The public latched onto these details, each providing a new talking point around water coolers or spurring new Reddit threads dedicated to unpacking their significance.
The courtroom as a stage
Ultimately, after three months, Erin Patterson was charged with three counts of murder and one count of attempted murder. She pleaded not guilty.
The trial lasted 40 days. The prosecution alleged Patterson intentionally poisoned her guests, whereas the defence suggested it was all an awful, tragic accident.
The jury took six and a half days to deliberate. During that time, various media outlets did everything they could to keep the story on the front page.
Bizarre pieces began appearing online from credible sources such as the ABC, profiling people who had attended court. They included stories of people turning down work to attend the court daily, cases of friendships blossoming during the trial between regular attendees, and the outfit choices of locals turning up every day to watch the drama unfold.
There were also articles profiling local cafe owners and how they felt about being at the centre of the legal theatrics. The daily podcasts continued even when news from the courtroom didn’t.
The vibe felt more appropriate for a royal visit than a triple murder trial.
It seemed everyone in Australia was gripped by one event, united in a way few other things could manage. We all waited with bated breath to see what the 12 men and women of the jury would decide.
The end to this strange and unique criminal case came on Monday July 7.
The result? Guilty on all four counts. Erin Patterson is formally a mass murderer, though many in the court of public opinion had reached the same conviction months earlier.
Leongatha will always be known for being the setting of (arguably) the most infamous multiple murder case in Australian history. It will join Snowtown in South Australia (home of the “bodies in the barrell” murder case), Kendall in New South Wales (where William Tyrrell disappeared), and Claremont in Western Australia (the murder or disappearance of three women) as places forever linked to tragic crimes.
While the trial is over, there’s much more content still to come, the public’s appetite yet to be satiated.
But the final word should be saved for the Patterson and Wilkinson families. This is an awful tragedy, and there are no winners. Ian and Simon have lost loved ones. The Patterson children have lost grandparents and now have to come to terms with the fact their mother caused those deaths intentionally.
Amid the spectacle, it’s easy to lose sight of the humanity at the centre. As the media spotlight dims, may the families get the privacy and respect they deserve.
Xanthe Mallett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
