Educators in a study agreed that the scarcity of dedicated resources, time, attention and training on bias affected their ability to assess their students’ development as accurately as they would like. (Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency/EDUimages), CC BY-NC-SA
Teachers’ perceptions and judgments of student skills are key to measuring children’s academic progress. But educators’ own biases can distort these perceptions and judgments.
Our team at the Offord Centre for Child Studies set out to understand more about how educators perceive the system for assessing kindergarten children’s development, in the context of children’s race, gender and family socioeconomic status.
In Ontario, kindergarten features five full days of play-based learning every week. Classes are led by a team of one teacher and one early childhood educator (ECE). Teachers have knowledge of the curriculum and are responsible for student learning and reporting to parents. ECEs have knowledge of early childhood development and plan age-appropriate activities to support development.
As part of our study, we conducted a series of four focus groups with kindergarten educators (five kindergarten teachers and one designated early childhood educator) from a school board in Ontario.
To be eligible to participate, educators had to have previously participated in cultural responsiveness initiatives and administered a teacher-completed developmental health checklist for kindergarten students at least once. All participants in our focus group were female, taught schools in urban neighbourhoods and five of the six were racialized.
In Ontario, kindergarten features five full days of play-based learning every week. (Shutterstock)
Educators discussed how their feelings and potential biases might creep into their assessments, and the strategies they use to limit this bias. Specifically, we asked about their use of the standard tool for assessing child development in kindergarten: The Early Development Instrument (EDI).
The EDI asks teachers to evaluate children in five areas of development: physical health and well-being; social competence; emotional maturity; language and cognitive development; and communication skills and general knowledge.
Race-related data are not routinely collected with the EDI (such as asking teachers to report how a child’s family identifies a child’s race, or in reporting their own race), even though, as some researchers and educators have noted, race-related data could be used to inform provision of supports.
Several key themes emerged from our discussions with educators. First, educators admitted that the social identities and demographic characteristics of the students in their classrooms could impact how they interpret kindergarteners’ skills and behaviours.
They explained that being exposed to a wide variety of students would increase their own awareness of children’s and their families’ identities, shaped by factors like race, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status and language, and help broaden their perceptions. For example, this would allow them to have a greater understanding of the range of behaviours children display.
Second, educators addressed the consequences of racial and gender biases in schools, some of them reflecting systemic racism. Educators acknowledged these systemic biases could impact their internal expectations of students, and potentially their reactions and interpretation of student behaviour.
Recognizing the potential for such unfairness, educators also identified deliberate strategies they use to minimize the impact of individual and systemic biases on their assessment.
They told us they pause and think critically about what may influence their perceptions of students, reframe how they might be looking at certain situations (that is, taking an “asset-based” approach, focusing on the students’ strengths) or check in with colleagues to be sure they’re being equitable.
The educators we interviewed revealed many personal feelings come up as they complete assessments and interact with students. For example, educators noted that it can be hard to separate assessing a child from their history with the child, or that they felt they were judging the child’s family.
In addition to the acknowledgement that biases and preconceived expectations could colour their assessments, they also acknowledged that these feelings, whether positive or negative, can make it difficult to assess their pupils objectively.
Similar to exposure to a diverse group of students, having knowledge of the whole child and building trusting and reciprocal relationships with families are other ways educators can reduce the impact of bias. For example, if their family is going through hard times, it could be expected that the child might be sad or worried.
Regarding the specific characteristics of the EDI, educators explained it was sometimes difficult to choose the most accurate responses to each item on a checklist when there were only two or three options.
Educators said they often wished they could explain their responses more.
Finally, educators agreed that the scarcity of dedicated resources, time, attention and training on bias affected their ability to assess their students’ development as accurately as they would like.
Policy improvements needed
While our study used the example of the EDI to elicit the discussion on assessment being influenced by student identities, the issues mentioned by educators go beyond this specific tool.
In our study, educators were not only aware of this influence; they used strategies to overcome it. These educators acknowledge that their expertise in evaluating children’s skills and behaviours can improve with better knowledge of and relationships with individual children and their families, by collaborating with colleagues and by having more time and training.
Our results suggest that policy improvements are necessary to make sure all educators have access to better strategies and opportunities to reduce unintended identity bias and provide more accurate assessments.
Given that the educators in this study had already participated in cultural responsiveness initiatives, further research could examine how interventions mitigate occurrences of particular biases and their potential adverse effects on students.
This research was supported by a Social Sciences and Humanities Council Partnership Engagement Grant.
United States President Donald Trump was “not happy” with his Russian counterpart, Vladimir Putin, this week.
For three consecutive nights, from Friday to Sunday, Russia launched about 900 drones and scores of missiles at Ukraine. At least 18 people were killed, including three children.
“We’re in the middle of talking and he’s shooting rockets into Kyiv and other cities,” Trump told reporters on Sunday, after Putin ordered the largest air assault on Ukraine’s civilians in its three-year war.
Following up on his remarks, Trump posted on social media that Putin had “gone absolutely CRAZY!”
Putin is not crazy. He is a tactician with a long-term goal: to make Russia a great power again and secure his place in the history books as the re-builder of Russia’s imperial might.
Trump announced after a phone call with Putin on May 19 that Russia and Ukraine would “immediately start negotiations” towards a ceasefire.
With his latest air campaign on Ukraine, however, Putin is threatening to destroy the goodwill he’s built up in Washington, where Trump has been consistently soft on Russia and tough on his allies.
So, what is Putin’s strategy? Why is he launching these massive air bombardments on Ukrainian civilians now?
Putin sees weakness in the West
One theory is these attacks are somehow preparations for a major offensive. That makes little sense.
Attacking military facilities, weapons depots or even frontline troops are useful preparations for an impending attack. Indiscriminate bombing of civilians, meanwhile, is a sign of either desperation or impatience.
The US also sent bombers to Japan in the final stages of the war because the American public became tired of seeing their sons, husbands, brothers and fathers die on Pacific islands they had never heard of. The war had dragged on forever by this point, and there seemed no end in sight.
Is Putin desperate or impatient? Likely the latter.
From the perspective of the Kremlin, Russia’s strategic situation is as good as it has been for years.
The US is trying to destroy itself through trade wars and boorish diplomacy. Trump clearly dislikes Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky and hopes the war will somehow end if he just demands it.
Europe is continuing to back Ukraine. However, for the time being, it still needs US support because its entire security structure is built around NATO and US strength, both economic and military.
What Putin sees when he surveys the international scene is weakness. In his thinking, such weakness needs to be exploited – now is the time to hurt Ukraine as much as possible, and hope it will crack. Analysts call this a “cognitive warfare effort”.
Indiscriminate air war on civilians is the only means Putin currently has to pressure Ukraine. His army has been advancing, but painfully slowly. There is no breakthrough in sight, even once the spring muds dry and the summer fighting season starts in earnest.
Russia has gradually advanced in Ukraine throughout 2024, but with no perceivable change in the overall situation. Putin does not command precision weapons or super spies, which he could use to take out Ukraine’s leadership.
All he can do is rain death on women, children and the elderly from relatively cheap, unsophisticated weapons, such as drones. He now has these in large supply, thanks to ramping up military production at home.
Bombing campaigns do not end wars
A strategic air war on civilians seldom works, however.
Japan’s surrender in 1945 is an exception, but it is misleading in many ways. The Americans had flattened Japan’s cities for a while already, just not using their new atomic weapons. Japan had already lost the war and the real question was if there would be a bloody US invasion or surrender.
And as the US dropped its two nuclear bombs in August of that year, the Red Army joined the fight, racing across Manchuria to help occupy Japanese territories.
In Germany, the British-American bombings from 1942 onwards certainly had an effect on war production, as they killed workers and destroyed factories. But they did not incapacitate the German army and certainly did not break morale.
Instead, the bombings led to embitterment and a closing of ranks around the regime. German society fought to the last moment. It did so not just despite, but because of the air war. The German army was eventually defeated by the ground troops of the Red Army, who took Berlin in an incredibly bloody fight.
Other historical failures are even more spectacular. The US air force dropped 864,000 tons of bombs on North Vietnam during an air campaign of more than 300,000 sorties lasting from 1965 to late 1968. The North Vietnamese lost maybe 29,000 people (dead and wounded), more than half of them civilians. The Americans and their South Vietnamese allies still lost the war.
Putin’s air war will likely follow the historical pattern: it has further embittered the Ukrainians, who know very well that what comes from the east is not liberation.
Another summer of fighting lies ahead. Ukraine’s friends in the democratic world need to urgently redouble their efforts to support Ukraine. The misguided hopes that Putin would somehow “make a deal” lie under the rubble his drones leave behind in Ukraine’s cities.
Mark Edele receives funding from the Australian Research Council.
A marine heatwave has been building in the ocean surrounding the UK during an exceptionally warm and dry spring. In other words, the sea surface temperature has been within the top 10% of records for each day of the year since at least the beginning of 2025.
How can we know the temperature of the sea surface over such a large area? Throughout April and May 2025, scientists have been able to map and monitor the seas surrounding the UK via satellites, buoys and other floating devices, plus computer models that simulate the ocean’s physical and chemical properties.
Infrared detectors mounted on pole-orbiting satellites can infer the temperature of the top layer of the ocean and have been doing so continuously since the late 1970s. These sensors cannot “see” through clouds, which is why other sources of data are essential.
These datasets are now 45 years old, which is long enough to create a baseline assessment of the climate during that time. This is important to properly contextualise any departures from the long-term average. Without it, scientists would not know how severe and widespread a marine heatwave truly is.
Thanks to a research station that has been collecting ocean temperatures in the western English Channel for over a century, we know that this part of the sea south of Devon is 2.7°C warmer than the 120-year average, which makes it a category II (“strong”) marine heatwave within the four-category scheme.
The importance of long-term monitoring
Marine heatwaves are different to what we expect in a meteorological heatwave. Since 2023, the waters around the UK have been regularly experiencing marine heatwave conditions, because the data shows that the sea temperature has been in the top 10% of records: but most of us would admit that a sea temperature of 10°C in early March doesn’t exactly conjure up the impression of a heatwave.
The search for better definitions of a marine heatwave continues among scientists, particularly as long-term baseline temperatures continue to warm and the top 10% of warm temperatures shifts upwards. Datasets gathered over several decades in the same place are valuable to this effort.
For example, the Plymouth Marine Laboratory and the Marine Biological Association have been monitoring conditions in the western English Channel for over a century. One of the longest running surveys in the world is situated 20 miles south of Plymouth.
Station E1 was originally founded by the International Council for the Exploration of the Seas in 1902, as part of the English (hence the “E”) effort in ocean observation.
What sets E1 apart is the near continuous nature of its recording since then, the frequency of its data collection (monthly in winter, fortnightly in summer) and its sampling throughout the entire water column (80 metres deep), not just at the surface. This enables scientists to observe the seasonal progression of water mixing and layer formation in that location.
The 123-year old dataset shows that sea surface temperatures have increased markedly within the past 40 years, at a rate of around 0.6°C a decade. Warm anomalies have been increasingly common, and cold anomalies increasingly rare.
Marine heatwave conditions have become increasingly frequent, particularly since 2010. The data also shows that at a depth of 50 metres – well below the top layer of the ocean – temperatures have also increased markedly. The ongoing marine heatwave is not just a surface phenomenon.
Fishers are catching octopus in large numbers off Devon and Cornwall due to the warm sea temperatures. Captured by Aixa/Shutterstock
What caused this heatwave?
The marine heatwave of spring 2025 has resulted from a combination of factors. It boils down to the fact that more energy is being put into the ocean during the day than is being lost at night.
March 2025 was the sunniest March on record (since 1910), with UK Met Office statistics showing there were around 185 hours of sunshine. April set new records for UK solar power generation, with a peak of 12.2 gigawatts (GW) being produced on April 1 out of a possible solar generating capacity of 18 GW.
May continued that trend, with long periods of clear skies under areas of the atmosphere with persistent high pressure. High-pressure areas are also associated with relatively low winds, which restricts the mixing of the warm surface with cooler deep water.
During the spring, rapidly lengthening days mean the time for energy in (day) outweighs energy out (night). It has also been notable that the spring phytoplankton bloom was very early this year (during early March). This is when tiny plant cells at the seawater surface burst into life, like plants on land. The bloom finished relatively early and the surface waters cleared earlier.
The conditions during May at E1 resembled those we would ordinarily associate with midsummer, with the phytoplankton bloom sitting deeper in the water. The clearer water at the surface allowed sunlight to penetrate deeper.
It is evident from our century-plus of measurements that marine heatwaves are happening more frequently and that there appears to be an almost continuous marine heatwave state emerging around the UK.
The intensity of a marine heatwave is generally tied to persistent high-pressure areas remaining static over the UK, but it is still unclear whether or not this is an emerging climate pattern, or just an episode within the general patterns of change within UK seas.
Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?
Tears are usually seen as a sign of sadness or pain, but it’s not uncommon for people to cry during life’s most joyful moments: weddings, births, reunions, sporting triumphs, or even just an unexpected act of kindness.
These “happy tears” seem contradictory, but they offer a fascinating window into how the human brain handles intense emotion.
Crying is a complex biological response to emotional overload – and it doesn’t discriminate between good and bad feelings. Whether triggered by grief or elation, tears are often the result of our brain attempting to process more than it can manage in the moment.
Both positive and negative emotions activate the limbic system, the part of the brain involved in processing feelings and memory. Within this system, the amygdala – an almond-shaped cluster of neurons – acts as an emotional alarm bell, detecting arousal and signalling the body to respond.
When highly stimulated, the amygdala activates other brain areas including the hypothalamus, which controls involuntary physical functions like heartbeat, breathing and tear production.
Another key structure is the anterior cingulate cortex, which plays a role in emotion regulation, decision-making and empathy. It helps coordinate the brain’s response to emotional conflict, such as experiencing joy and sadness at the same time. These overlapping pathways explain why a sudden surge of happiness can still produce a reaction typically associated with distress.
The limbic system explained.
Scientists believe happy crying is a form of emotional homeostasis: a way of bringing us back to equilibrium after an emotional high. Crying activates the parasympathetic nervous system, which slows the heart rate and relaxes the body after the adrenaline spike of intense feeling. In other words, tears help us calm down.
This idea of “resetting” isn’t unique to happiness. Crying in response to stress or trauma serves a similar purpose. What’s striking about happy crying is how it illustrates the body’s effort to balance opposing forces: relief after fear, gratitude after hardship, pride after struggle.
Happy tears
So-called “happy” tears are rarely just that. Often they emerge from a blend of emotions. For example, a parent watching their child graduate may be proud, nostalgic, and a little melancholic all at once. A long-awaited reunion might stir joy and the pain of absence. Psychologists refer to this as a dual-valence response – an emotional state that contains both positive and negative elements.
These emotional blends engage memory systems as well, particularly the hippocampus, which processes and retrieves personal history. That’s why a joyful moment can unexpectedly bring a lump to the throat – it activates memories of previous loss, struggle or longing.
Interestingly, humans are the only animals known to shed emotional tears. While many mammals produce reflex tears to lubricate the eye, only humans cry in response to emotion. This probably evolved as a form of non-verbal communication, especially in early social groups.
Tears signal vulnerability, authenticity and emotional depth. Crying during joyful moments demonstrates to others that something profoundly meaningful has occurred.
In this way, happy crying can strengthen social bonds, invite empathy and create shared moments of catharsis. Research has even shown that people are more likely to offer help to someone who is crying, regardless of whether the tears are sad or joyful.
So why do we cry when we’re happy? Because happiness is not a simple emotion. It is often tangled with memory, relief, awe and the sheer weight of meaning. Tears are the brain’s way of processing this complexity, of marking a moment that matters, even when it’s joyful. Far from being a contradiction, happy tears remind us that emotional life is rich, messy and above all deeply human.
Michelle Spear does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The Belfast Giants celebrate a goal.(Belfast Giants)
In its simplest form, the protracted tensions in Northern Ireland have at their foundation two separate sectarian identities deeply divided over how, and by whom, they are governed — Protestant/Unionist populations wishing to maintain British rule and Catholic/Nationalists desiring a united Ireland.
The arena is a place where symbols of division, so common across Northern Ireland via flags, murals and graffiti, are not allowed.
The lack of a historical association with one side of the conflict, the fact that the sport is played predominantly by men from outside Northern Ireland — mostly from North America and Scandinavia — and a name and logo rooted in the shared regional lore of mythical giant Finn McCool has allowed the team to forge its own path post-peace agreement.
The Belfast Giants Mascot, Finn McCool, at a recent game. (Belfast Giants)
The Friendship Four
In 2015, after years of planning, the Belfast Giants hosted the inaugural Friendship Four hockey tournament.
Held over the American Thanksgiving weekend, the tournament has since become an annual event that sees four Division I hockey teams from American universities come to Belfast for a two-day experience that includes intercultural exchange, educational visits to local schools and a hockey tournament.
Since the tournament began, it has hosted teams from the New England and Boston areas as a means of fostering stronger ties between the sister cities of Belfast and Boston.
In 2024, the Friendship Four tournament notably included a school with a long association with Ireland, the University of Notre Dame. As a prominent American Catholic university with a team name — the Fighting Irish — that is directly connected to the island’s divisive history, the team’s inclusion in the Friendship Four had the potential to tarnish the neutrality of the event.
Controversial social media post
As a researcher who has engaged significantly with supporters of the Belfast Giants, and as an alumnus of the University of Notre Dame, this tournament drew me to Belfast.
The ‘Know Before You Go’ post from Notre Dame Hockey on X on Nov. 19, 2024 that was subsequently deleted. (Notre Dame Hockey X account)
Before the 2024 tournament in November, the Notre Dame Hockey account posted guidelines on X for their supporters in Belfast, including an image of what to wear, and what not to wear, around the city. It noted: “Just a reminder to avoid our Irish symbolism, that may be deemed offensive to some, while out around town.”
The post was deleted a few hours later, and an apology was issued acknowledging the tournament was meant to build bridges, not stoke division. Nonetheless, the original post drew significant attention and criticism.
Belfast media and British news outlets picked up the story about the Notre Dame post. Many of the comments on social media about the story were situated in ethno-sectarian views or pointed fingers of blame.
The outrage that greeted the Notre Dame X post demonstrates the tension and complexity of identity and symbols in Northern Ireland. But it thankfully wasn’t replicated in the Belfast hockey arena because the groundwork of social capital among hockey fans in the city has been built over the last 25 years.
‘Game on!’ and getting on with it
On Nov. 29, 2024, the Notre Dame team took to the ice to play against Harvard without any extra fanfare.
The afternoon game was filled with school groups carrying homemade signs and cheering for the teams whose players had visited their schools earlier in the week with overt hopes of seeing themselves on the jumbotrons. The game could have been in Saskatoon given the lack of any sectarian tensions.
Action at the Friendship Four Championship Hockey Game on Nov. 30, 2024, in Belfast. (Notre Dame Hockey Facebook)
In an age of rising polarization and lack of human connection, the hockey arena in Belfast is worthy of attention.
Hallmarks of post-conflict reconstruction include the development of a shared understanding of the truth about past events and directly engaging with contested acts and issues. Neither effort has been particularly well-executed in Northern Ireland.
Nonetheless, as people wait for a more fulsome peace in the region, they have managed to live peacefully side by side in places like the Belfast hockey arena.
Eric Lepp does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation – Canada – By Isabel Pedersen, Professor of Communication and Digital Media Studies, Ontario Tech University
Sophisticated AI assistants are becoming commonplace in people’s lives.(Shutterstock)
The growing proliferation of AI-powered chatbots has led to debates around their social roles as friend, companion or work assistant.
And they’re growing increasingly more sophisticated. The role-playing platform Character AI promises personal and creative engagement through conversations with its bot characters. There have also been some negative outcomes: currently, Character.ai is facing a court case involving its chatbot’s role in a teen’s suicide.
Others, like ChatGPT and Google Gemini, promise improved work efficiency through genAI. But where is this going next? Amid this frenzy, inventors are now developing advanced AI assistants that will be far more socially intuitive and capable of more complex tasks.
The applications of generative AI keep growing. (Shutterstock)
Future shock
The shock instigated by OpenAI’s ChatGPT two years ago was not only due to the soaring rate of adoption and the threat to jobs, but also because of the cultural blow it aimed at creative writing and education.
My research explores how the hype surrounding AI affects some people’s ability to make professional judgments about it. This is due to anxiety related to the vulnerability of human civilization, feeding the idea of a future “superintelligence” that might outpace human control.
With US$1.3 trillion in revenue projected for 2032, the financial forecast for genAI drives further hype.
Mainstream media coverage also sensationalizes AI’s creativity, and frames the tech as a threat to human civilization.
Raising the alarm
Scientists all over the world have signalled an urgency around the implementations and applications of AI.
The turn in AI underway now is a shift toward self-centric and personalized AI tools that go well beyond current capabilities to recreating what has become a commodity: the self. AI technologies reshape how we perceive ourselves: our personas, thoughts and feelings.
The next wave of AI assistants, a form of AI agents, will not only know their users intimately, but they will be able to act on a user’s behalf or even impersonate them. This idea is far more compelling than those that only serve as assistants writing text, creating video or coding software.
These personalized AI agents will be able to determine intentions and carry out work.
Iason Gabriel, senior research scientist at Google DeepMind, and a large team of researchers wrote about the ethical development of advanced AI assistants. Their research sounds the alarm that AI assistants can “influence user beliefs and behaviour,” including through “deception, coercion and exploitation.”
There is still a techno-utopian aspect to AI. In a podcast, Gabriel ruminates that “many of us would like to be plugged into a technology that can take care of a lot of life tasks on our behalf,” also calling it a “thought partner.”
Senior research scientist at Google DeepMind, Iason Gabriel, discusses the implications of AI.
Cultural disruption
This more recent turn in AI disruption will interfere with how we understand ourselves, and as such, we need to anticipate the techno-cultural impact.
Online, people express hyper-real and highly curated versions of themselves across platforms like X, Instagram or Linkedin. And the way users interact with personal digital assistants like Apple’s Siri or Amazon’s Alexa has socialized us to reimagine our personal lives. These “life narrative” practices inform a key role in developing the next wave of advanced assistants.
The quantified self movement is when users track their lives through various apps, wearable technologies and social media platforms. New developments in AI assistants could leverage these same tools for biohacking and self-improvement, yet these emerging tools also raise concerns about processing personal data. AI tools involve the risk of identity theft, gender and racial discrimination and various digital divides.
More than assistance
Human-AI assistant interaction can converge with other fields. Digital twin technologies for health apply user biodata. They involve creating a virtual representation of a person’s physiological state and can help predict future developments. This could also lead to over-reliance on AI Assistants for medical information without human oversight from medical professionals.
Other advanced AI assistants will “remember” people’s pasts and infer intentions or make suggestions for future life goals. Serious harms have already been identified when remembering is automated, such as for victims of intimate partner violence.
We need to expand data protections and governance models to address potential privacy harms. This upcoming cultural disruption will require regulating AI. Let’s prepare now for AI’s next cultural turn.
Isabel Pedersen receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).
Before then, recording was done mechanically, scratching sound waves onto rolled paper or a cylinder. Such recordings suffered from low fidelity and captured only a small segment of the audible sound spectrum.
By using electrical microphones, amplifiers and electromechanical recorders, record companies could capture a far wider range of sound frequencies, with much higher fidelity. For the first time, recorded sound closely resembled what a live listener would hear. Over the ensuing years, sales of vinyl records and record players boomed.
The technology also allowed some enterprising music fans to make recordings in surprising and innovative ways. As a physician and scholar in the medical humanities, I am fascinated by the use of X-ray film to make recordings – what was known as “bone music,” or “ribs.”
This rather bizarre, homemade technology became a way to skirt censors in the Soviet Union – and even played an indirect role in its dissolution.
Skirting the Soviet censorship regime
At the end of World War II, Soviet censorship shifted into high gear in an effort to suppress a Western culture deemed threatening or decadent.
Many books and poems could circulate only through “samizdat,” a portmanteau of “self” and “publishing” that involved the use of copy machines to reproduce forbidden texts. Punishments inflicted on Soviet artists and citizens for producing or disseminating censored materials included loss of employment, imprisonment in gulags and even execution.
The phonographic analog of samizdat was often referred to as “roentgenizdat,” which was derived from the name of Wilhelm Roentgen, the German scientist who received the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901 for his discovery of X-rays.
Roentgen’s work revolutionized medicine, making it possible to peer inside the living human body without cutting it open and enabling physicians to more easily and accurately diagnose skeletal fractures and diseases such as pneumonia.
Today, X-rays are produced and stored digitally. But for most of the 20th century they were created on photographic film and stored in large film libraries, which took up a great deal of space.
Because exposed X-ray films cannot be reused, hospitals often recycled them to recoup the silver they contained.
Making music from medicine
In the Soviet Union in the 1940s, some clever people realized that X-ray film was just soft enough to be etched by an electromechanical lathe, or sound recording device.
To make a “rib,” or “bone record,” they would use a compass to trace out a circle on an exposed X-ray film that might bear the image of a patient’s skull, spine or hands. They then used scissors to cut out the circle, before cutting a small hole in the middle so it would fit on a conventional record player.
Then they would use a recording device to cut either live sound or, more commonly, a bootleg record onto the X-ray film. Sound consists of vibrations that the lathe’s stylus etches into grooves on the disc. Such devices were not widely available, meaning that only a relatively small number of people could produce such recordings.
A disc-cutting lathe demonstrates the production of an X-ray record at a 2021 exhibition in Berlin, Germany. Adam Berry/Getty Images
The censors kept a close eye on record companies. But anyone who could obtain a recording device could record music on pieces of X-ray film, and these old films could be obtained after hospitals threw them out or purchased at a relatively low price from hospital employees.
Compared with professionally produced vinyl records, the sound quality was poor, with recordings marred by extraneous noises such as hisses and crackles. The records could be played only a limited number of times before the grooves would wear out.
Nonetheless, these resourceful recordings were shared, bought and sold entirely outside of official channels into the 1960s and 1970s.
A window into another life
Popular artists “on the bone” included Ella Fitzgerald and Elvis Presley, whose jazz and rock ’n’ roll recordings, to the ears of many Soviet citizens, represented freedom and self-expression.
In his book “Bone Music,” cultural historian Stephen Coates describes how Soviet authorities viewed performers such as The Beatles as toxic because they appeared to promote a brand of amoral hedonism and distracted citizens from Communist party priorities.
“It is true that from time to time they are caught, their equipment confiscated, and they may even be brought to court. But then they may be released and be free to go wherever they like. The judges decide that they are, of course, parasites, but they are not dangerous. They are getting suspended sentences! But these record producers are not just engaged in illegal operations. They corrupt young people diligently and methodically with a squeaky cacophony and spread explicit obscenities.”
Bone music was inherently subversive.
For one thing, it was against the law. Moreover, the music itself suggested that a different sort of life is possible, beyond the strictures of Communist officials. How could a political system that prohibited beautiful music, many asked, possibly merit the allegiance of its citizens?
The ability of citizens to get around the censors and spread Western thought, whether through books or bone music, helped chip away at the government’s legitimacy.
One Soviet-era listener Coates interviewed long after the USSR’s collapse described the joy of listening to these illicit recordings:
“I was lifted up off the ground, I started flying. Rock’n’roll showed me a new world, a world of music, words, and feelings, of life, of a different lifestyle. That’s why, when I got my first records, I became a happy man. I felt like a changed person, it was as if I was born again.”
The playing of a bootleg record from the Soviet Union, recorded on an X-ray negative.
Richard Gunderman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
When the computer or phone you’re using right now blinks its last blink and you drop it off for recycling, do you know what happens?
At the recycling center, powerful magnets will pull out steel. Spinning drums will toss aluminum into bins. Copper wires will get neatly bundled up for resale. But as the conveyor belt keeps rolling, tiny specks of valuable, lesser-known materials such as gallium, indium and tantalum will be left behind.
Those tiny specks are critical materials. They’re essential for building new technology, and they’re in short supply in the U.S. They could be reused, but there’s a problem: Current recycling methods make recovering critical minerals from e-waste too costly or hazardous, so many recyclers simply skip them.
Sadly, most of these hard-to-recycle materials end up buried in landfills or get mixed into products like cement. But it doesn’t have to be this way. New technology is starting to make a difference.
A treasure trove of critical materials is often overlooked in e-waste, including gallium in LEDs, indium in LCDs, and tantalum in surface mount capacitors. Ansan Pokharel/West Virginia University, CC BY
As demand for these critical materials keeps growing, discarded electronics can become valuable resources. My colleagues and I at West Virginia University are developing a new technology to change how we recycle. Instead of using toxic chemicals, our approach uses electricity, making it safer, cleaner and more affordable to recover critical materials from electronics.
Even worse, nearly half the electronics that people in Northern America sent to recycling centers end up shipped overseas. They often land in scrapyards, where workers may use dangerous methods like burning or leaching using harsh chemicals to pull out valuable metals. These practices can harm both the environment and workers’ health. That’s why the Environmental Protection Agency restricts these methods in the U.S.
The tiny specks matter
Critical minerals are in most of the technology around you. Every phone screen has a super-thin layer of a material called indium tin oxide. LEDs glow because of a metal called gallium. Tantalum stores energy in tiny electronic parts called capacitors.
All of these materials are flagged as “high risk” on the U.S. Department of Energy’s critical materials list. That means the U.S. relies heavily on these materials for important technologies, but their supply could be easily disrupted by conflicts, trade disputes or shortages.
Right now, just a few countries, including China, control most of the mining, processing and recovery of these materials, making the U.S. vulnerable if those countries decide to limit exports or raise prices.
At West Virginia University’s Department of Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, I and materials scientist Edward Sabolsky asked a simple question: Could we find a way to heat only specific parts of electronic waste to recover these valuable materials?
If we could focus the heat on just the tiny specks of critical minerals, we might be able to recycle them easily and efficiently.
This equipment isn’t very different from the microwave ovens you use to heat food at home, just bigger and more powerful. The basic science is the same – electromagnetic waves cause electrons to oscillate, creating heat.
In our approach, though, we’re not heating water molecules like you do when cooking. Instead, we heat carbon, the black residue that collects around a candle flame or car tailpipe. Carbon heats up much faster in a microwave than water does. But don’t try this at home; your kitchen microwave wasn’t designed for such high temperatures.
West Virginia University researchers are using this experimental microwave reactor to recycle critical materials from end-of-life electronics. Ansan Pokharel/West Virginia University, CC BY
In our recycling method, we first shred the electronic waste, mix it with materials called fluxes that trap impurities, and then heat the mixture with microwaves. The microwaves rapidly heat the carbon that comes from the plastics and adhesives in the e-waste. This causes the carbon to react with the tiny specks of critical materials. The result: a tiny piece of pure, sponge-like metal about the size of a grain of rice.
This metal can then be easily separated from leftover waste using filters.
So far, in our laboratory tests, we have successfully recovered about 80% of the gallium, indium and tantalum from e-waste, at purities between 95% and 97%. We have also demonstrated how it can be integrated with existing recycling processes.
Many important technologies, from radar systems to nuclear reactors, depend on these special materials. While the Department of Defense uses less of them than the commercial market, they are a national security concern.
We’re planning to launch larger pilot projects next to test the method on smartphone circuit boards, LED lighting parts and server cards from data centers. These tests will help us fine-tune the design for a bigger system that can recycle tons of e-waste per hour instead of just a few pounds. That could mean producing up to 50 pounds of these critical minerals per hour from every ton of e-waste processed.
If the technology works as expected, we believe this approach could help meet the nation’s demand for critical materials.
How to make e-waste recycling common
One way e-waste recycling could become more common is if Congress held electronics companies responsible for recycling their products and recovering the critical materials inside. Closing loopholes that allow companies to ship e-waste overseas, instead of processing it safely in the U.S., could also help build a reserve of recovered critical minerals.
But the biggest change may come from simple economics. Once technology becomes available to recover these tiny but valuable specks of critical materials quickly and affordably, the U.S. can transform domestic recycling and take a big step toward solving its shortage of critical materials.
Terence Musho has received funding from Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy.
Source: The Conversation – USA – By Patrick Aguilar, Professor of Practice of Organizational Behavior, Washington University in St. Louis
Pharmacies are more than just stores – they’re vital links between people and their health care.
One of us, Patrick, witnessed this firsthand in 2003 while working as a pharmacy technician at Walgreens in a midsize West Texas town. Each day involved handling hundreds of prescriptions as they moved through the system – meticulously counting pills, deciphering doctors’ handwriting and sorting out confusing insurance issues. The experience revealed that how pharmacies are owned and managed is as much a public health issue as it is a financial one.
Fast-forward to today, and Walgreens – one of the world’s largest pharmacy chains, which filled nearly 800 million U.S. prescriptions in 2024 – is at a turning point. In March, the company announced it would be acquired by private equity firm Sycamore Partners for US$10 billion, just 10% of its peak market value. That deal takes the storied pharmacy chain off the public market for the first time in nearly 100 years.
We’re professors who study the intersection of medicineand business, and we think this deal offers a window into the future of pharmacy care. It matters not just to pharmacists but also to the tens of millions of Americans who rely on outlets like Walgreens to meet their everyday health needs.
The rise and struggles of Walgreens
A lot has changed in the pharmacy industry since 1901, when Charles R. Walgreen Sr. purchased the Chicago drugstore where he served as a pharmacist. The company went public in 1927, expanded rapidly throughout the 20th century and grew to 8,000 stores by 2013. By 2014, a merger with the European pharmacy chain Alliance Boots made Walgreens one of the largest pharmacy chains in the world.
More recently, however, the picture for the pharmacy industry hasn’t been so rosy. Labor costs have risen. Front-end retail sales – things like snacks, greeting cards and cosmetics – have fallen. And financial pressures from pharmacy benefit managers – those third-party groups that manage the cost of prescription drug benefits on the behalf of insurers – have grown.
All of these things have significantly constrained revenues across the industry, leading stores to shutter. Some estimates suggest that as many as one-third of U.S. retail pharmacies have closed since 2010.
Against that backdrop, Sycamore Partners’ March acquisition of Walgreens raises big questions. What does Sycamore see in this investment, and what might their strategies imply about the future of American pharmacy care?
Framing the private equity bet
Private equity firms typically buy companies, streamline their operations and seek to sell them for a profit within five to seven years of the acquisition.
This growing movement of private equity into the global economy is by no means limited to health care. In 2020, private equity firms employed 11.7 million U.S. workers, or about 7% of the country’s total workforce. The total assets under management by such investors have grown by over 11% annually over the past two decades, a trend that’s expected to continue.
In looking at Walgreens, Sycamore, like many of these businesses, likely sees an opportunity to buy low, cut costs and improve profitability. One survey of private equity investors found that the most common self-reported sources of value creation in these deals for companies of Sycamore’s size were changing the product and marketing it more robustly to drive demand, changing incentives for those within the business, and facilitating a high-value exit.
While private owners may have more patience than public markets, critics argue that private equity firms tend to have a short-term focus, looking for quick, predictable services of margin improvement – like, for example, cutting jobs.
There’s some evidence in favor of that claim. One study found that employment often drops in the years following a private equity buyout. And if the focus shifts to repaying debt or prepping for resale, long-term projects, such as investing in future innovation, can get deprioritized.
The history of privatized public companies offers a mix of successes and failures. Dell Technologies and hotel chain Hilton are two prominent examples of companies that went private, restructured successfully and came back stronger. In those cases, going private helped management focus without the constant pressure of quarterly earnings reports.
On the other hand, companies such as Toys R Us, which was taken private in 2005 and filed for bankruptcy in 2018, show how high debt and missed innovation can lead to collapse.
What’s next for Walgreens
So, where does this leave Walgreens − and the investors involved in the deal?
As the dust settles on the purchase, Sycamore has indicated an interest in splitting Walgreens into three business units: one focused on U.S. pharmacies, one on U.K. pharmacies and one on U.S. primary health care through its VillageMD subsidiary.
That’s not unusual: Sycamore has used a similar approach before with its investment in the office supply retailer Staples, a strategy that has garnered strong financial returns but been called into question for its long-term sustainability.
Given the significant financial challenges VillageMD has faced since its acquisition by Walgreens, this represents an opportunity to separately evaluate and optimize its performance. Meanwhile, Sycamore’s historic focus on retail and customer-focused businesses might help it modernize the in-store experience or optimize staffing.
For more than a century, Walgreens has survived and adapted to sweeping changes in retail. Now, it’s entering a new chapter – one that could reshape not just its own future but the role of pharmacies in American life.
Will Sycamore help Walgreens thrive, using its resources to strengthen services and deliver more value to customers? Or will pressure to generate quick returns create problems? Either way, the answer matters – not just for investors but for anyone who’s ever relied on their neighborhood pharmacy to stay healthy.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Four helicopters carrying an arrest team whirled over the mountains near Mexico’s southwestern coast toward Cervantes’ compound in the town of Villa Purificación, the heart of the infamous Jalisco Nueva Generación cartel.
As the lead helicopter pulled within range, bullets from a truck-mounted, military-grade machine gun on the ground struck the engine. Before it reached the ground, the massive helicopter was hit by a pair of rocket-powered grenades.
This .50-caliber cartridge was found stuck in the truck-mounted Browning M2HB machine gun that the Jalisco Nueva Generación cartel used to damage a Mexican Security Forces Super Cougar helicopter. ATF
Four soldiers from Mexico’s Secretariat of National Defense were killed in the crash. Three more soldiers were killed in the firefight that followed, and another 12 were injured.
The engagement was the first known incident of a cartel shooting down a military aircraft in Mexico. The cartel’s retaliation for the attempted arrest was swift and brutal. It set fire to trucks, buses, banks, gasoline stations and businesses. The distractions worked. Cervantes, also known as “El Mencho,” escaped.
The Browning machine gun that took down the helicopter was traced to a legal firearm purchase in Oregon made by a U.S. citizen. And a Barrett .50-caliber rifle used in the ambush was traced to a sale in a U.S. gun shop in Texas 4½ years before.
Many military-grade weapons like these are trafficked into Mexico from the U.S. each year, aided by loose standards for firearm dealers and gun laws that favor illicit sales.
We – a professor of economic development who has been tracking gun trafficking for more than 10 years, and an investigative journalist – spent a year sifting through documents to find the number, origins and characteristics of weapons flowing from the U.S. to Mexico.
The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives – the agency known as ATF tasked with regulating the industry – publishes the number of U.S. guns seized in Mexico and traced back to U.S. dealers, but it doesn’t provide an official trafficking estimate. The 2003 Tiahrt Amendments bar the ATF from creating a database of firearm sales and prohibit federal agencies from sharing detailed trace data outside of law enforcement.
To estimate weapons flow, we gathered trafficking estimates, including leaked data, previous research, firearm manufacturing totals and the ATF trace data.
The model we generated gave us a conservative middle estimate: About 135,000 firearms were trafficked across the border in 2022. In contrast, Ukraine, engaged in a war with Russia, received 40,000 small arms from the United States between January 2020 and April 2024 – an average of 9,000 per year.
An increase in guns trafficked to Mexico from the U.S. relates to an increase in Mexico’s homicide rate.
More of the most destructive weapons come from independent gun dealers versus large chain stores – 16 times as many assault-style weapons and 60 times as many sniper rifles.
The trafficking flow drives an arms race between criminals and Mexican law enforcement; the U.S. gun industry profits on sales to both.
ATF oversight of dealers reduces the likelihood their guns are resold on the illicit market.
Following the flow
Since 2008, the U.S. has spent more than US$3 billion to help stabilize Mexico through the rule of law and stem its surges of extreme violence, much of it committed with U.S. firearms. Many programs are funded through the U.S. State Department, which is facing budget cuts, and the U.S. Agency for International Development, which has sustained deep cuts.
Meanwhile, the gun industry and its supporters have undercut these efforts by fighting measures to regulate gun sales.
From 2015-2023, 185,000 guns linked to crimes in Mexico were sent to the ATF to be traced – the process of using a firearm’s serial number and other characteristics to identify the trail of gun ownership. About 125,000 of those weapons have been traced back to the U.S.
Our analyses show that U.S.-Mexico firearms trafficking has dire implications for ordinary Mexicans – and that U.S. regulatory actions can have an enormous impact. This adds to a growing body of research tying U.S.-sold guns to Mexico-based gangs and cartels, illegal drug trafficking, homicide rates, corruption of Mexican officials, illicit financial transactions and migration trends.
Oregon guns tied to cartel
The Jalisco Nueva Generación cartel is poised to be the biggest player in the drug cartel game. El Mencho, still at large, is one of the most powerful people directing the flow of heroin, fentanyl and methamphetamines into the United States, while orchestrating campaigns of fear, intimidation and displacement in Mexico.
The Browning .50-caliber rifle that aided El Mencho’s evasion in 2015 was manufactured by a company based in Morgan, Utah, and legally sold to Erik Flores Elortegui, a U.S. citizen.
Elortegui fled the country after he was indicted in Oregon for smuggling guns into Mexico and is now at the top of the ATF’s most wanted list. He wasn’t alone in his gunrunning schemes. According to a grand jury indictment, Elortegui purchased 20 firearms through an accomplice, Robert Allen Cummins, in 2013 and 2014. Cummins was straw purchasing – buying weapons under his name for Elortegui.
Two of the .50-caliber weapons that Cummins purchased for Elortegui – the long rifles on the right – were among those later recovered from a tractor trailer in Sonora, Mexico. USA v. Robert Allen Cummins. USA v. Robert Allen Cummins
Before she gave Cummins a 40-month prison sentence in 2017, Judge Ann Aiken admonished him for the pain and suffering his weapons were likely going to cause. She told him to read “Dreamland,” which chronicles America’s opioid crisis and its connection to Mexican drug cartels.
After their mother was killed by organized crime five years ago, Emylce Ines Espinoza-Alarcon’s sister’s family migrated to the States, she said.
Espinoza-Alarcon, her children and other relatives were more recently driven from their homes by violence. “As a parent, you try to flee to a different place where they might be safe,” Espinoza-Alarcon said. She said she believes American weapons are to blame, but there “is nowhere else for us to go.”
Emylce Ines Espinoza-Alarcon holds her toddler as she listens while her aunt, Alicia Zomora-Guevara, front, describes the cartel attack on her town that forced their families into exile. Zomora-Guevara’s son, Kevin Jait Alarcon-Zamora, stands to the right, and Espinoza-Alarcon’s son and teenage daughter sit on the Mexico City hotel room bed in front of her. Sean Campbell, CC BY-ND
A 2023 survey found that 88% of the 180,000 Mexican migrants to the U.S. that year were fleeing violence – a flip from 2017 when most were coming for economic opportunity.
The ATF’s enforcement
ATF inspections keep illicit guns in check, our analysis shows.
The agency’s primary enforcement tools are inspections, violations reports, warning letters and meetings, and, when inspectors find violations that are reckless or willfully endanger the public, revocation notices.
But the bureau’s 2025 congressional budget request points out that it would need 1,509 field investigators to reach its goal of inspecting each dealer at least once every three years.
This is a condensed version. To learn more about the connections between U.S. gun sales, U.S. regulations, Mexican drug cartels and migration, read the full investigation
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Pennsylvania residents may get sticker shock when they see their electric bills this summer. Aging infrastructure, extreme weather, transmission bottlenecks and increased demand are sending electricity rates soaring.
Widespread rate hikes across the commonwealth started in December 2024 and are continuing in 2025. Rising prices are related to how the wholesale electricity market in Pennsylvania operates, among other factors. Utilities are paying much more than in previous years to ensure they can meet their customers’ future demand, and these costs are being passed on to consumers.
For example, Philadelphia residents were among those hit with a 10% rate increase that went into effect in January 2025 for all residential customers of PECO, Pennsylvania’s largest electric and gas utility. Some of PECO’s residential customers will see an additional 12.5% rate increase kick in on June 1, 2025.
A notice from PECO sent May 21, 2025.
As Penn State University professors who research energy law and electricity markets, we want to suggest five ways Pennsylvania consumers can lower their electric bills amid price hikes.
1. Use less
Much like when gasoline prices rise, the best response for individual consumers when electric rates go up is often to use less electricity.
Weatherization has an added benefit: improved health. In addition to maintaining a more comfortable indoor temperature, weatherizing paired with ventilation improvements can improve indoor air quality and control indoor moisture and mold.
Making a home more energy efficient can be tricky for low-income people, who might not be able to afford the costs, and renters, who don’t own the premises. However, Pennsylvania offers several programs to help residents make energy efficiency improvements, and organizations such as the Philadelphia Energy Authority try to reach low-income households.
Through the state’s low income usage reduction program, eligible tenants can receive help installing energy-saving features with written permission from their landlord. The multifamily weatherization assistance program has also provided grants for weatherization measures such as insulation and “air sealing to reduce infiltration” in buildings with five or more units that meet income criteria for residents.
Pennsylvania has what is called “retail electricity choice,” which means residents can pick who generates their electricity. For example, consumers can shop around for different rates charged per kilowatt-hour of electricity they consume or for electricity produced from wind and solar power.
But electricity customers cannot choose who carries that electricity to their residences. That is done by a regulated electric distribution company, or utility, with a monopoly on service.
Consumers can sometimes reduce their bills by choosing a cheaper offer for generation. But retail choice can be risky if consumers do not carefully read the conditions of the contract.
For example, some plans charge a higher rate than the default rate from the distribution company. Others charge different rates depending on whether the electricity is consumed during peak or off-peak hours. And still others lock customers into long contracts at a fixed price. This becomes undesirable if the default electricity rate drops lower than the contracted rate.
3. Try solar
For those who own their home, installing rooftop solar panels is another way to avoid higher electric bills.
The cost of solar panels has fallen steadily for many years, and rising electric rates make the economics of solar better.
Pennsylvania also has fairly advantageous rules for “net metering, which allows solar homeowners to get credits from the utility for excess solar power fed back into the grid.
For example, say a customer uses 1,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity in a month and their rooftop solar panels generate 1,200 kilowatt-hours. They won’t have to pay for the 1,000 kilowatt-hours they used, and those additional 200 kilowatt-hours will be credited on their next monthly electric bill.
Additionally, a number of federal and state tax incentives are available for rooftop solar energy in Pennsylvania. These incentives offset some of the up-front costs of installing solar panels.
Buying solar panels is a high up-front expense, however, even with tax credits. Programs such as Solarize Greater Philadelphia can help reduce the cost. But keep in mind that not all properties have roofs that are large, strong or sunny enough to benefit from solar.
For homeowners with suitable roofs, third-party solar is another option. This is when a company installs and continues owning the solar panels and charges the customer a fixed rate for the electricity produced by the solar panels. This rate is typically cheaper than the rate offered by the utility. But as with any contract, consumers need to read the fine print carefully and understand the long-term obligation.
4. Go to a public hearing
Local electric utilities are regulated by the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission. Pennsylvania residents can file formal complaints with the PUC about rate hikes, or they can attend one of PUC’s public input hearings.
Consumers might want to pay particular attention to the commission’s proceedings as it considers new electric rates and regulation for data centers and other large-load customers. These rates will determine which costs are shouldered by the data center operators and which costs wind up on the electric bills of all Pennsylvanians.
Consumers can file comments to advocate for a rate-sharing plan they believe will be fair.
5. Think holistically
As Americans continue to digitize their lives, electricity demand – and therefore prices – will likely continue to rise.
Given that growing electricity demand contributes to higher future rates, consumers may want to think about the energy-intensive online applications they use, such as data storage and all the AI features that tech companies are integrating into their products.
Consumers might also want to consider the types of energy they want produced in their neighborhood. Many people understandably oppose constructing new energy facilities in their communities due to the aesthetic impacts, use of land and in some cases pollution. But this opposition can also slow the construction of new energy generation.
Better processes for community involvement can enable the construction of generation with fewer negative impacts. These processes include, among other things, more detailed developer-community discussions and more comprehensive and thoughtful community benefits agreements. These agreements allow communities to negotiate services and resources that the energy developer will provide them. Such offerings might include vocational training programs, financial or other donations, or commitments to hire local labor.
Hannah Wiseman receives or has recently received funding from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Arnold Ventures, U.S. National Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Energy, Center for Rural Pennsylvania, and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. She is a member of the Center for Progressive Reform.
Seth Blumsack receives or has recently received funding from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Heising Simons Foundation, U.S. National Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Energy, NASA, U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Center for Rural Pennsylvania and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.
Source: The Conversation – USA – By Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Associate Professor of Political Science, San Diego State University
While sanctuary policies for immigrants have grown in the U.S. since the 1980s, the Trump administration is the first to challenge them. Marcos Silva/iStock/Getty Images Plus
San Francisco, Chicago and New York are among the major cities – as well as more than 200 small towns and counties and a dozen states – that over the past 40 years have adopted what is often known as sanctuary policies.
There is not a single definition of a sanctuary policy. But it often involves local authorities not asking about a resident’s immigration status, or not sharing that personal information with federal immigration authorities.
So when a San Francisco police officer pulls someone over for a traffic violation, the officer will not ask if the person is living in the country legally.
American presidents, from Ronald Reagan to Joe Biden, have chosen to leave sanctuary policies largely unchallenged since different places first adopted them in the 1970s. This changed in 2017, when President Donald Trump first tried to cut federal funding to sanctuary places, claiming that their policies “willfully violate Federal law.” Legal challenges during his first term stopped him from actually withholding the money.
At the start of his second term, Trump signed two executive orders in January and April 2025 which again state that his administration will withhold federal money from areas with sanctuary policies.
“Working on papers to withhold all Federal Funding for any City or State that allows these Death Traps to exist!!!” Trump said, according to an April White House statement. This statement was immediately followed by his April executive order.
These two executive orders task the attorney general and secretary of homeland security with publishing a list of all sanctuary places and notifying local and state officials of “non-compliance, providing an opportunity to correct it.” Those that do not comply with federal law, according to the orders, may lose federal funding.
San Francisco and 14 other sanctuary cities, including New Haven, Connecticut, and Portland, Oregon, sued the Trump administration in February on the grounds that it was illegally trying to coerce cities to comply with its policies. A U.S. district court judge in California issued an injunction on April 24preventing the administration – at least for the time being – from cutting funding from places with sanctuary policies.
However, as researchers who have studied sanctuary policies for over a decade, we know that Trump’s claim that sanctuary policies violate federal immigration law is not correct.
It’s true that the federal government has exclusive jurisdiction over immigration. Yet there is no federal requirement that state or local governments participate or cooperate in federal immigration enforcement, which would require an act of Congress.
In 1979, the Los Angeles Police Department was the first to announce a prohibition on local officials asking about a resident’s immigration status.
However, it was not until the 1980s that the sanctuary movement took off, when hundreds of thousands of Salvadorans, Guatemalans and Nicaraguans fled civil war and violence in their home countries and migrated to the U.S. This prompted a number of cities to declare solidarity with the faith-based sanctuary movement that offered refuge to Salvadoran, Guatemalan and Nicaraguan asylum seekers facing deportation.
In 1985, Berkeley, Calif., and San Francisco pledged that city officials, including police officers, would not report Central Americans to immigration authorities as long as they were law abiding.
“We are not asking anyone to do anything illegal,” Nancy Walker, a supervisor for San Francisco, said in 1985, according to The New York Times. “We have got to extend our hand to these people. If these people go home, they die. They are asking us to let them stay.”
Today, there are hundreds of sanctuary cities, towns, counties and states across the country that all have a variation of policies that limit their cooperation with federal immigration authorities.
Sometimes – but not always – places with sanctuary policies bar local law enforcement agencies from working with Immigration and Customs Enforcement, the country’s main immigration enforcement agency.
A large part of ICE’s work is identifying, arresting and deporting immigrants living in the U.S. illegally. In order to carry out this work, ICE issues what is known as “detainer requests” to local law enforcement authorities. A detainer request asks local law enforcement to hold a specific arrested person already being held by police until that person can be transferred to ICE, which can then take steps to deport them.
While places without sanctuary policies tend to comply with these requests, some sanctuary jurisdictions, like the state of California, only do so in the cases of particular violent criminal offenses.
Yet local officials in sanctuary places cannot legally block ICE from arresting local residents who are living in the country illegally, or from carrying out any other parts of its work.
However, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in a 2018 case involving San Francisco and Santa Clara County, California, that the president could not refuse to “disperse the federal grants in question without congressional authorization.”
These cases were in the process of being appealed to the Supreme Court when the Department of Justice, under Biden, asked that they be dismissed.
Other Supreme Court rulings also suggest that the Trump administration’s claim that it can withhold federal funding from sanctuary places rests on shaky legal ground.
The Supreme Court ruled in 1992 and again in 1997 that the federal government could not coerce state or local governments to use their resources to enforce a federal regulatory program, or compel them to enact or administer a federal regulatory program.
Under pressure
The first Trump administration was not generally successful, with the exception of the split over the Edward Byrne Memorial Assistance Grant Program, at stripping funding from sanctuary places. But cutting federal funding – even if it happens temporarily – can be economically damaging to cities and counties while they challenge the decision in court.
Local officials also face other kinds of political pressure to comply with the Trump administration’s demands.
A legal group founded by Stephen Miller, deputy chief of staff in the Trump administration, for example, sent letters to dozens of local officials in January threatening criminal prosecution for their sanctuary policies.
Michelle Wu, the mayor of Boston, a sanctuary city, testifies during a House committee hearing on sanctuary city mayors on March 5, 2025, in Washington. Nathan Posner/Anadolu via Getty Images
The real effects of sanctuary policies
One part of Trump’s argument against sanctuary policies is that places with these policies have more crime than those that do not.
But there is no established relationship between sanctuary status and crime rates.
There is, however, evidence that when local law enforcement and ICE work together, it reduces the likelihood of immigrant and Latino communities to report crimes, likely for fear of being arrested by federal immigration authorities.
Sanctuary policies are certainly worthy of debate, but this requires an accurate representation of what they are, what they do, and the effects they have.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation – USA – By Nicholas J. Cull, Professor of Communication, USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism
The bluegrass group Della Mae plays at an orphanage in Kyrgyzstan on its State Department-sponsored American Music Abroad tour in 2012.Photo: Paul Rockower
Previous U.S. administrations have realized this, including during President Donald Trump’s first term, when his team, led by Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs Marie Royce, raised the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs budget to an all-time high.
Modern Jazz Quartet traveled to Germany in 1960 as jazz ambassadors on a State Department-sponsored tour.
Giving politics a human dimension
Government-funded cultural diplomacy is an old practice. In 1889, President Benjamin Harrison’s government hosted a delegation of leaders from Latin America on a 5,000-mile rail tour around the American heartland as a curtain raiser for the first Pan-American conference. The visitors met a variety of American icons, from wordsmith Mark Twain to gunsmiths Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson.
President Teddy Roosevelt initiated the first longer-term cultural exchange program by spending money raised from an indemnity imposed on the Chinese government for its mishandling of the Boxer Rebellion, during which Western diplomats had been held hostage. The program, for the education of Chinese people, included study in the U.S. In contrast, European powers did nothing special with their share of the money.
This work went into high gear during the 1950s. The U.S. sought to stitch postwar Germany back into the community of nations, so that nation became a particular focus. Programs linked emerging global leaders to Americans with similar interests: doctor to doctor; pastor to pastor; politician to politician.
Visits gave a human dimension to political alignment, and returnees had the ability to speak to their countrymen and women with the authority of personal experience.
From jazz to promoting peace
The globally focused International Visitor Leadership Program built early-career relationships between U.S. citizens and young foreign leaders who later played a central role in aligning their nations with American policy.
British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s note from 10 Downing Street about her 1967 exchange visit to the US – ‘Forevermore I shall be a true friend to the United States.’ U.S. Department of State
Current programs include bringing emerging highfliers in tech, music and sports to the U.S. to connect to and be mentored by Americans in the same field and then go home to be part of a living network of enhanced understanding. Such programs are in danger of being cut under Trump.
Five U.S. hip-hop artists traveled to Harare, Zimbabwe, in 2024 to perform for audiences and collaborate with local artists as part of the State Department’s Next Level program. U.S. Department of State
Personal experience conquers stereotypes
How exactly does this work advance U.S. security?
I see these exchanges as the national equivalent to the advice given to a diplomat in kidnap training: Try to establish a rapport with your hostage-taker so that they will see the person and be inclined to mercy.
The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs is the part of the Department of State that cultivates empathy and implicitly counters the claims of America’s detractors with personal experience. Quite simply, it is harder to hate people you really know. More than this, exchanged people frequently become the core of each embassy’s local network.
Of course, an exchange program is just one part of a nation’s reputational security.
Reputation flows from reality, and reality is demonstrated over time. Historically, America’s reputation has rested on the health of the country’s core institutions, including its legal system and higher education as well as its standard of living.
U.S. reputational security has also required reform.
In the 1950s, when President Dwight Eisenhower faced an onslaught of Soviet propaganda emphasizing racism and racial disparities within the U.S., he understood that an effective response required that the U.S. not only showcase Black achievement but also be less racist. Civil rights became a Cold War priority.
As lawmakers in Washington debate federal spending priorities, building relationships through cultural tools may not survive budget cuts. Historically, both sides of the political aisle have failed to appreciate the significance of investing in cultural relations.
In 2013, when still a general heading Central Command, Jim Mattis, later Trump’s secretary of defense, was blunt about what such lack of regard would mean. In 2013 he told Congress: ‘If you don’t fund the State Department fully, then I need to buy more ammunition, ultimately.“
Nicholas J. Cull does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, is a clear, colorless liquid that plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of your central nervous system. It cushions the brain and spinal cord, provides nutrients and removes waste products.
Despite its importance, problems related to CSF often go unnoticed until something goes wrong.
Recently, cerebrospinal fluid disorders drew public attention with the announcement that musician Billy Joel had been diagnosed with normal pressure hydrocephalus. In this condition, excess CSF accumulates in the brain’s cavities, enlarging them and putting pressure on surrounding brain tissue even though diagnostic readings appear normal. Because normal pressure hydrocephalus typically develops gradually and can mimic symptoms of other neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease, it is often misdiagnosed.
I am a neurologist and headache specialist. In my work treating patients with CSF pressure disorders, I have seen these conditions present in many different ways. Here’s what happens when your cerebrospinal fluid stops working.
What is cerebrospinal fluid?
CSF is made of water, proteins, sugars, ions and neurotransmitters. It is primarily produced by a network of cells called the choroid plexus, which is located in the brain’s ventricles, or cavities.
Cerebrospinal fluid circulates throughout the brain and spinal cord. OpenStax, CC BY-SA
CSF has several critical functions. It protects the brain and spinal cord from injury by absorbing shocks. Suspending the brain in this fluid reduces its effective weight and prevents it from being crushed under its own mass. Additionally, CSF helps maintain a stable chemical environment in the central nervous system, facilitating the removal of metabolic waste and the distribution of nutrients and hormones.
If the production, circulation or absorption of cerebrospinal fluid is disrupted, it can lead to significant health issues. Two notable conditions are CSF leaks and idiopathic intracranial hypertension.
Cerebrospinal fluid leak
A CSF leak occurs when the fluid escapes through a tear or hole in the dura mater – the tough, outermost layer of the meninges that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.
The dura can be damaged from head injuries or punctured during surgical procedures involving the sinuses, brain or spine, such as lumbar puncture, epidurals, spinal anesthesia or myelogram. Spontaneous CSF leaks can also occur without any identifiable cause.
CSF leaks were originally thought to be relatively rare, with an estimated annual incidence of 5 per 100,000 people. However, with increased awareness and advances in imaging, health care providers are discovering more and more leaks. They tend to occur more frequently in middle-aged adults and are more common in women than men.
An upright headache could be a sign of a CSF leak.
Unfortunately, it’s common for health care providers to misdiagnose a CSF leak as another condition, like migraine, sinus infections or allergies. What can make diagnosing a CSF leak challenging is its broad symptoms. Most people with a CSF leak have a positional headache that improves when lying down and worsens when standing. Pain is usually felt in the back of the head and may involve the neck and between the shoulder blades. In addition to headaches, patients may experience ringing in the ears, vision disturbances, memory problems, brain fog, dizziness and nausea.
Conservative treatment for a CSF leak involves rest, lying flat and increasing your fluid intake to give your spine time to heal the puncture. Increasing your caffeine consumption to an equivalent of three to four cups of coffee per day can also help by increasing CSF production through stimulating the choroid plexus. Caffeine also relieves pain by interacting with adenosine receptors, which are key players in the body’s pain perception mechanisms.
If a conservative approach is not successful, an epidural blood patch may be necessary. In this procedure, blood is drawn from your arm and injected into your spine. The injected blood can help form a covering over the hole and promote the healing process. Headache improvement can be fast, but if the patch does not work or the results are short-lived, additional testing may be needed to better locate the site of the leak. In rare cases, surgery may be recommended. Most patients with a CSF leak respond to some form of these treatments.
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension is a disorder involving an excess of CSF that elevates pressure inside the skull and compresses the brain. The term “idiopathic” indicates that the cause of the raised pressure is unknown.
Most patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension have a history of obesity or recent weight gain. Other risk factors include taking certain medications such as tetracycline, excessive vitamin A, tretinoin, steroids and growth hormone. Middle-aged obese women are 20 times more likely to be diagnosed with idiopathic intracranial hypertension than other patient groups. As obesity becomes more prevalent, so too does the incidence of this condition.
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension results from increased intracranial pressure.
Patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension typically experience headaches and vision changes, tinnitus or eye pain. Papilledema, or swelling of the optic disc, is the hallmark finding on a fundoscopic examination of the back of the eye. Clinicians may also observe paralysis of the patient’s eye muscles.
Normal pressure hydrocephalus, Joel’s diagnosis, is a form of this condition that commonly results in difficulty walking, loss of bladder control and cognitive impairment, sometimes referred to as the “wet, wobbly and wacky” triad. Joel’s diagnosis has brought awareness to this underrecognized but potentially treatable disorder, which is often managed through surgically placing a shunt to divert excess fluid and relieve symptoms.
Brain imaging of patients suspected of having idiopathic intracranial hypertension is crucial to excluding other causes of elevated CSF pressure, such as brain tumors or blood clots in the brain. A lumbar puncture or spinal tap to measure the pressure and composition of CSF is also central to diagnosis.
Since high intracranial pressure can damage the optic nerve and lead to permanent vision loss, the primary goal of treatment is to decrease pressure and preserve the optic nerve. Treatment options include weight loss, dietary changes and medications to reduce CSF production. Surgical procedures can also reduce intracranial pressure.
Future directions and unknowns
Cerebrospinal fluid is indispensable for brain health. Despite advances in understanding diseases related to CSF, several aspects remain unclear.
The exact mechanisms that lead to conditions like CSF leaks and idiopathic intracranial hypertension are not fully understood, though there are many theories. Further research is vital to enhance diagnostic accuracy and effective treatments for CSF disorders.
Danielle Wilhour does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The common element in each of these policies is a promise from Trump’s inaugural speech that his administration would recognize only two genders: male and female.
These executive orders make life difficult for transgender people, many of whom do identify as women or men, just not the sex they were assigned at birth. Apart from that, however, the emphasis on two and only two genders denies the existence of another group that is often misunderstood: nonbinary people.
Trans vs. nonbinary
I am a sociologist who studies gender. Over the past few years, co-researchers and I have interviewed 123 nonbinary people in three regions in America: the South, the Midwest and the West Coast. These interviewees spoke about how nonbinary people’s increased visibility in society in recent years helped them feel more welcome and liberated from gender stereotypes.
All of the respondents are nonbinary. They do not want to be seen as the opposite sex from what they were assigned at birth; they do not feel they were “born in the wrong body.”
Rather, they want to avoid being forced into the either/or labels that the categories “masculine” and “feminine” or “man” and “woman” entail. They opt out of those binary identifications altogether.
Decades of research, some of it our own, have shown that sex and gender are different from one another. Sex refers to primary and secondary sex characteristics, while gender is about the cultural meanings built upon sex categories.
Gender is a social system that justifies rules and expectations that differentiate between the rights and social roles of men and women. These systems vary across time and place. Today, there are societies such as those in Iceland, Barbados and Bosnia-Herzegovina where women lead the government, while in other societies women must be covered or secluded at home.
Sense of self
Most of the people we talked to were under age 30. Typically, they rejected the societal pressure to adopt the personality characteristics that are stereotypically associated with their biological sex, such as submissiveness for women and toughness for men.
Many of them also reject the ways people are expected to dress and use their bodies to show whether they are men or women. Some people who had been raised as boys wore nail polish and earrings, for example, while sporting a beard. Others wore long earrings and makeup – though those kinds of choices do not necessarily mean someone is trans or nonbinary. Many of the respondents who had been raised as girls, meanwhile, chose to wear masculine clothing. They wanted to mix and match traditional symbols of gender.
Many of the respondents had felt that binary gender identities never quite fit, and they described feeling overjoyed or relieved when they learned about the word “nonbinary”: an identity that offered a more accurate reflection of their sense of self.
“I was just kind of a flesh blob to myself, until I kind of found out that there was a term … nonbinary. And I heard the term and I was like, “Oh, that actually sounds correct for me. That actually feels right …”
Another person we interviewed remembered:
“Before I knew what to call myself … it was like a sense of emptiness. … I finally found that piece to put in that empty spot. And it feels more full now. Like, I feel complete now.”
He, she, they
The implications of that discovery were quite diverse, however. Although all the interviewees identified as nonbinary, what that meant for how they wanted to interact with their friends and families differed dramatically.
For about half of our respondents, using the pronouns “they/them” rather than he/him or she/her was very important, because using that pronoun made them feel respected. Indeed, when asked how they felt being referred to as they/them, one person told us:
“It felt like magic. It felt like everything just went into place and everything fit. And I was just like, ‘Oh, my God, this is … this is it.‘”
Other people we interviewed didn’t really care how others refer to them: he, she or they. Some of these people described having a flexible sense of their own gender. Some days they feel more feminine and use “she”; other days they feel more masculine, and “he” might work better.
“I don’t have to choose one,” one person told us about their pronouns. “I just need all of them in the arsenal.”
Still others said they don’t care about a “proper” pronoun because they do not think gender should matter at all. They don’t want to be a third category, a “they.” Instead, they hope for a world where their body parts do not determine how they’re perceived or treated, and so gender is not central to their identity. They would like to do without gender entirely.
Significance – for everyone
The people we interviewed want the right to live in peace without being forced into a gender category. The recent executive orders deny this freedom by declaring that gender “does not provide a meaningful basis for identification” – contradicting a decades-long consensusin the social sciences on the distinction between sex and gender.
Understanding that sex and gender are related but different matters not only for people who identify as nonbinary or transgender, but for everyone. Without that understanding, it is far too easy to presume socially constructed gender differences are essentially biological and to stigmatize people who do not follow strict gender norms. If you believe the myth that biology alone is the sole reason women and men differ, it would be easy to presume, for example, that women are naturally less ambitious or that men cannot be as nurturing.
If I have learned anything from our team’s research on nonbinary young people, it is that human beings are creative and try to carve out a place for themselves in the world. The evidence suggests that gender nonconformity and diversity is wide and deep in America. What is at stake, however, is how much freedom or oppression individuals will face as they express themselves.
Barbara J. Risman has received funding from the National Science Foundation for the research discussed in this article.
Infectious diseases such as gonorrhea or chlamydia are often overlooked factors that affect fertility in men. Accumulating evidence suggests that a common single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii may also be a contributor: An April 2025 study showed for the first time that “human sperm lose their heads upon direct contact” with the parasite.
I am a microbiologist, and my lab studies Toxoplasma. This new study bolsters emerging findings that underscore the importance of preventing this parasitic infection.
In addition to eggs, tissue cysts present in the meat of warm-blooded animals can spread toxoplasmosis as well if they are not destroyed by cooking to proper temperature.
While most hosts of the parasite can control the initial infection with few if any symptoms, Toxoplasma remains in the body for life as dormant cysts in brain, heart and muscle tissue. These cysts can reactivate and cause additional episodes of severe illness that damage critical organ systems.
While immunocompromised patients are most at risk for testicular toxoplasmosis, it can also occur in otherwise healthy individuals. Imaging studies of infected mice confirm that Toxoplasma parasites quickly travel to the testes in addition to the brain and eyes within days of infection.
Knowing that Toxoplasma can reside in male reproductive organs has prompted analyses of fertility in infected men. A small 2021 study in Prague of 163 men infected with Toxoplasma found that over 86% had semen anomalies.
Not all studies, however, produce a link between toxoplasmosis and sperm quality.
Toxoplasma can directly damage human sperm
Toxoplasmosis in animals mirrors infection in humans, which allows researchers to address questions that are not easy to examine in people.
Testicular function and sperm production are sharply diminished in Toxoplasma-infected mice, rats and rams. Infected mice have significantly lower sperm counts and a higher proportion of abnormally shaped sperm.
In that April 2025 study, researchers from Germany, Uruguay and Chile observed that Toxoplasma can reach the testes and epididymis, the tube where sperm mature and are stored, two days after infection in mice. This finding prompted the team to test what happens when the parasite comes into direct contact with human sperm in a test tube.
After only five minutes of exposure to the parasite, 22.4% of sperm cells were beheaded. The number of decapitated sperm increased the longer they interacted with the parasites. Sperm cells that maintained their head were often twisted and misshapen. Some sperm cells had holes in their head, suggesting the parasites were trying to invade them as it would any other type of cell in the organs it infiltrates.
The researchers speculate that the harmful effects Toxoplasma may have on sperm could be contributing to large global declines in male fertility over the past decades.
Sperm exposed to Toxoplasma. Arrows point to holes and other damage to the sperm; asterisks indicate where the parasite has burrowed. The two nonconfronted controls at the bottom show normal sperm. Rojas-Barón et al/The FEBS Journal, CC BY-SA
Preventing toxoplasmosis
The evidence that Toxoplasma can infiltrate male reproductive organs in animals is compelling, but whether this produces health issues in people remains unclear. Testicular toxoplasmosis shows that parasites can invade human testes, but symptomatic disease is very rare. Studies to date that show defects in the sperm of infected men are too small to draw firm conclusions at this time.
Additionally, some reports suggest that rates of toxoplasmosis in high-income countries have not been increasing over the past few decades while male infertility was rising, so it’s likely to only be one part of the puzzle.
Regardless of this parasite’s potential effect on fertility, it is wise to avoid Toxoplasma. An infection can cause miscarriage or birth defects if someone acquires it for the first time during pregnancy, and it can be life-threatening for immunocompromised people. Toxoplasma is also the leading cause of death from foodborne illness in the United States.
The probability of any American having dementia in their lifetime may be far greater than previously thought. For instance, a 2025 study that tracked a large sample of American adults across more than three decades found that their average likelihood of developing dementia between ages 55 to 95 was 42%, and that figure was even higher among women, Black adults and those with genetic risk.
Now, a great deal of attention is being paid to how to stave off cognitive decline in the aging American population. But what is often missing from this conversation is the role that chronic stress can play in how well people age from a cognitive standpoint, as well as everybody’s risk for dementia.
We are professors at Penn State in the Center for Healthy Aging, with expertise in health psychology and neuropsychology. We study the pathways by which chronic psychological stress influences the risk of dementia and how it influences the ability to stay healthy as people age.
Recent research shows that Americans who are currently middle-aged or older report experiencing more frequent stressful events than previous generations. A key driver behind this increase appears to be rising economic and job insecurity, especially in the wake of the 2007-2009 Great Recession and ongoing shifts in the labor market. Many people stay in the workforce longer due to financial necessity, as Americans are living longer and face greater challenges covering basic expenses in later life.
Therefore, it may be more important than ever to understand the pathways by which stress influences cognitive aging.
Social isolation and stress
Although everyone experiences some stress in daily life, some people experience stress that is more intense, persistent or prolonged. It is this relatively chronic stress that is most consistently linked with poorer health.
In a recent review paper, our team summarized how chronic stress is a hidden but powerful factor underlying cognitive aging, or the speed at which your cognitive performance slows down with age.
It is hard to overstate the impact of stress on your cognitive health as you age. This is in part because your psychological, behavioral and biological responses to everyday stressful events are closely intertwined, and each can amplify and interact with the other.
Stress is often missing from dementia prevention efforts
A robust body of research highlights the importance of at least 14 different factors that relate to your risk of Alzheimer’s disease, a common and devastating form of dementia and other forms of dementia. Although some of these factors may be outside of your control, such as diabetes or depression, many of these factors involve things that people do, such as physical activity, healthy eating and social engagement.
What is less well-recognized is that chronic stress is intimately interwoven with all of these factors that relate to dementia risk. Our work and research by others that we reviewed in our recent paper demonstrate that chronic stress can affect brain function and physiology, influence mood and make it harder to maintain healthy habits. Yet, dementia prevention efforts rarely address stress.
Avoiding stressful events and difficult life circumstances is typically not an option.
Where and how you live and work plays a major role in how much stress you experience. For example, people with lower incomes, less education or those living in disadvantaged neighborhoods often face more frequent stress and have fewer forms of support – such as nearby clinics, access to healthy food, reliable transportation or safe places to exercise or socialize – to help them manage the challenges of aging
As shown in recent work on brain health in rural and underserved communities, these conditions can shape whether people have the chance to stay healthy as they age.
Over time, the effects of stress tend to build up, wearing down the body’s systems and shaping long-term emotional and social habits.
Lifestyle changes to manage stress and lessen dementia risk
The good news is that there are multiple things that can be done to slow or prevent dementia, and our review suggests that these can be enhanced if the role of stress is better understood.
Whether you are a young, midlife or an older adult, it is not too early or too late to address the implications of stress on brain health and aging. Here are a few ways you can take direct actions to help manage your level of stress:
Prioritize your mental health and well-being to the extent you can. Things as simple as talking about your worries, asking for support from friends and family and going outside regularly can be immensely valuable.
If your doctor says that you or someone you care about should follow a new health care regimen, or suggests there are signs of cognitive impairment, ask them what support or advice they have for managing related stress.
If you or a loved one feel socially isolated, consider how small shifts could make a difference. For instance, research suggests that adding just one extra interaction a day – even if it’s a text message or a brief phone call – can be helpful, and that even interactions with people you don’t know well, such as at a coffee shop or doctor’s office, can have meaningful benefits.
The same behaviors that keep your heart healthy are also beneficial for your brain.
Walkable neighborhoods, lifelong learning
A 2025 study identified stress as one of 17 overlapping factors that affect the odds of developing any brain disease, including stroke, late-life depression and dementia. This work suggests that addressing stress and overlapping issues such as loneliness may have additional health benefits as well.
However, not all individuals or families are able to make big changes on their own. Research suggests that community-level and workplace interventions can reduce the risk of dementia. For example, safe and walkable neighborhoods and opportunities for social connection and lifelong learning – such as through community classes and events – have the potential to reduce stress and promote brain health.
Importantly, researchers have estimated that even a modest delay in disease onset of Alzheimer’s would save hundreds of thousands of dollars for every American affected. Thus, providing incentives to companies who offer stress management resources could ultimately save money as well as help people age more healthfully.
Although research on potential biomedical treatments is ongoing and important, there is currently no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. However, if interventions aimed at reducing stress were prioritized in guidelines for dementia prevention, the benefits could be far-reaching, resulting in both delayed disease onset and improved quality of life for millions of people.
Jennifer E. Graham-Engeland receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.
Martin J. Sliwinski receives funding from The National Institutes of Health
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Dan Baumgardt, Senior Lecturer, School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol
Sports hernias – which are more common in men – cause pain in the groin and pubic region.Inspiration GP/ Shutterstock
A friend of mine came to see me recently complaining of an odd ache he’d noted in his lower abs and groin. He couldn’t blame it on crunches at the gym, nor a cow kicking him in the belly again (he’s a farmer). But he does spend a fair amount of his time on the football pitch and was now noticing that every training session and match was bringing the pain on – sometimes agonisingly so.
The diagnosis? A sports hernia. This condition also goes by many other names, including athletic pubalgia and Gilmore’s groin – after the late British surgeon Jerry Gilmore who was the first to coin it. It’s actually a fairly recently described condition, dating back to only the 1980s.
The main symptom of a sports hernia is pain in the pubic and groin regions, brought on through athletic activity. The condition is actually more common that you think, especially so in footballers. Around 70% of all sports hernias appear to be related to the sport. It’s also estimated that groin pain accounts for around 5-18% of athletic injuries.
A sport’s hernia is not your typical hernia. In fact, it’s not really a hernia at all.
A true hernia is defined as when a section of tissue or organ passes into a space where it shouldn’t be. Many will be aware of those hernias which involve a section of bowel passing through the abdominal wall – such as an inguinal hernia.
There are other types of hernias as well. For instance, your stomach can pop through a gap in the diaphragm and into the chest (called a hiatus hernia). More seriously, even the brain can herniate – out of one of the holes in the skull.
But a sports hernia is different, in that it actually arises from overuse of the abdominal muscles.
The abdominals include the long, straight and central “rectus abdominis” muscles – which allow you to perform a sit-up or crunch. Three layers of muscle also lie on either side of the abdominals. These are the obliques, which have important roles in twisting and turning our bodies. The muscles are also mixed with layers of tendon and connective tissue which not only attach them together, but also to the bones and ligaments of the pelvis.
Sports hernias are typically caused by moves which involve a lot of twisting and turning – and especially those occurring at speed. Hip movements can also put strain on where the ab muscles attach at the groin region. These actions appear to cause shearing and tears in the tissue, leading to pain. It’s felt in the groin or lower abs, usually on one side. In men, who are particularly at risk, pain may also be felt in the genitalia.
Some sports rely upon these sorts of moves and actions during play. Think about dribbling in football and hockey, or pinning and throwing opponents in wrestling or martial arts. Slalom skiing is another prime example – travelling at speed and rapidly changing direction. Tackling and scrum action in rugby or American football, and explosive block starts and hurdling in track athletes might also be to blame.
People who play sports that have a lot of twisting, such as football, may have a greater risk of suffering a sports hernia. Vitalii Vitleo/ Shutterstock
The condition appears much more common in males, who are up to nine times more likely to develop it. This is perhaps because of the anatomy of their lower abs, which is different to females. The testes – which initially develop inside the abdomen – descend to the scrotum during the foetal period. But to do this, they actually have to pass through the layers of the abdominal wall which makes the structure weaker and potentially more prone to damage.
While sports hernias are vastly more common in athletes because of the regular repetitive strain they put their bodies under, it’s still technically possible for non-athletes to get it.
If you work in a job where there’s regular heavy lifting, pivoting as you do so – on a building site for instance – it may be possible to sustain the same injury. Or, doing too many advanced core exercises at the gym before you’re sufficiently strong enough might also make you more prone. Dead lifts and core exercises that use a medicine ball (such as Russian twists) are some culprits.
Managing a sports hernia
If you do develop a sports hernia, it appears that improving core strength may help you recover. Patients diagnosed with a sports hernia typically undergo a training programme to strengthen and stabilise their core muscles. In athletes who already have a strong core, it may also be worthwhile training muscles that strengthen the pelvis alongside a gradual return to sport. Physiotherapy, massage and acupuncture may also help.
Some cases might also require surgery to reinforce the groin structure, and relieve any tension on the tissues.
There’s evidence to suggest that sports hernias are both under-reported and under-diagnosed. This may be because they get confused with other types of injuries – such as an inguinal hernia, which is also related to the groin, more commonly found in males and associated with abdominal wall strain and damage.
The key difference is that a real inguinal hernia causes a swelling in the groin region or scrotum, whereas sports hernias do not. Inguinal hernias can also cause complications if the bowel gets twisted and obstructed, which can have potentially severe consequences.
So, if you’re someone who participates in these twisting, turning types of sports and notice any of the symptoms of a sports hernia, it’s best to stop instead of pushing yourself through the pain. You should also speak to a doctor in case there are signs of a true hernia, which often requires further surgical treatment.
Dan Baumgardt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The search for extraterrestrial life has long gone back and forth between scientific curiosity, public fascination and outright scepticism. Recently, scientists claimed the “strongest evidence” of life on a distant exoplanet – a world outside our solar system.
Grandiose headlines often promise proof that we are not alone, but scientists remain cautious. Is this caution unique to the field of astrobiology? In truth, major scientific breakthroughs are rarely accepted quickly.
Newton’s laws of motion and gravity, Wegener’s theory of plate tectonics, and human-made climate change all faced prolonged scrutiny before achieving consensus.
But does the nature of the search for extraterrestrial life mean that extraordinary claims require even more extraordinary evidence? We’ve seen groundbreaking evidence in this search beforehand, from claims of biosignatures (potential signs of life) in Venus’s atmosphere to Nasa rovers finding “leopard spots” – a potential sign of past microbial activity – in a Martian rock.
Both stories generated a public buzz around the idea that we might be one step closer to finding alien life. But on further inspection, abiotic (non-biological) processes or false detection became more likely explanations.
In the case of the exoplanet, K2-18 b, scientists working with data from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) announced the detection of gases in the planet’s atmosphere – methane, carbon dioxide, and more importantly, two compounds called dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and dimethyl disulphide (DMDS). As far as we know, on Earth, DMS/DMDS are produced exclusively by living organisms.
Their presence, if accurately confirmed in abundance, would suggest microbial life. The researchers even suggest there’s a 99.4% probability that the detection of these compounds wasn’t a fluke – a figure that, with repeat observations, could reach the gold standard for statistical certainty in the sciences. This is a figure known as five sigma, which equates to about a one in a million chance that the findings are a fluke.
So why hasn’t the scientific community declared this the discovery of alien life? The answer lies in the difference between detection and attribution, and in the nature of evidence itself.
JWST doesn’t directly “see” molecules. Instead, it measures the way that light passes through or bounces off a planet’s atmosphere. Different molecules absorb light in different ways, and by analysing these absorption patterns – called spectra – scientists infer what chemicals are likely to be present. This is an impressive and sophisticated method – but also an imperfect one.
It relies on complex models that assume we understand the biological reactions and atmospheric conditions of a planet 120 light years away. The spectra suggesting the existence of DMS/DMDS may be detected because you cannot explain the spectrum without the molecule you’ve predicted, but it could also result from an undiscovered or misunderstood molecule instead.
Climate comparison
Given how momentous the conclusive discovery of extraterrestrial life would be, these assumptions mean that many scientists err on the side of caution. But is this the same for other kinds of science? Let’s compare with another scientific breakthrough: the detection and attribution of human-made climate change.
The relationship between temperature and increases in CO₂ was first observed by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in 1927. It was only taken seriously once we began to routinely measure temperature increases. But our atmosphere has many processes that feed CO₂ in and out, many of which are natural.
So the relationship between atmospheric CO₂ and temperature may have been validated, but the attribution still needed to follow.
Carbon has three so-called flavours, known as isotopes. One of these isotopes, carbon-14, is radioactive and decays slowly. When scientists observed an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide but a low volume of carbon-14, they could deduce that the carbon was very old – too old to have any carbon-14. Fossil fuels – coal, oil and natural gas – are composed of ancient carbon and thus are devoid of carbon-14.
So the attribution of anthropogenic climate change was proven beyond reasonable doubt, with 97% acceptance among scientists. In the search for extraterrestrial life, much like climate change, there is a detection and attribution phase, which requires the robust testing of hypotheses and also rigorous scrutiny.
In the case of climate change, we had in situ observations from many sources. This means roughly that we could observe these sources close up. The search for extraterrestrial life relies on repeated observations from the same sensors that are far away. In such situations, systematic errors are more costly.
Further to this, both the chemistry of atmospheric climate change and fossil fuel emissions were validated with atmospheric tests under lab conditions from 1927 onwards. Much of the data we see touted as evidence for extraterrestrial life comes
from light years away, via one instrument, and without any in situ samples.
The search for extraterrestrial life is not held to a higher standard of scientific rigour but it is constrained by an inability to independently detect and attribute multiple lines of evidence.
For now, the claims about K2-18 b remain compelling but inconclusive.
That doesn’t mean we aren’t making progress. Each new observation adds to a growing body of knowledge about the universe and our place in it. The search continues – not because we’re too cautious, but because we are rightly so.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Neil Beasley, PhD Candidate in Business and Law, Liverpool John Moores University
Since the start of his second term in office, US president Donald Trump has cultivated a political atmosphere that discourages freedom of thought. He also actively villainises and punishes any dissenting opinion. Worryingly, this atmosphere looks like it is spreading across other democracies.
Commentators have described Trump as both narcissistic and authoritarian. Yet, running parallel to these factors, one character trait is glaringly common among Trump supporters: sycophancy.
You just have to examine the pre-election rhetoric of Trump loyalists. One backer, Stephen Miller, declared him “the most stylish president … in our lifetimes”. Miller is now deputy White House chief of staff.
And South Dakota governor Kristi Noem gifted Trump a four-foot Mount Rushmore replica – with Trump’s face added alongside the original four presidents. Noem, who is now secretary of homeland security, epitomises the elevation of loyal sycophants over those with arguably better credentials.
Research has examined the dangers of sycophantic behaviour in the workplace, finding it reduces peer respect and morale, and leads to dissonance and lower productivity.
Other research has shown that someone who chooses to employ these tactics can enjoy improved promotion prospects, rewards such as the first refusal on business trips, easier access to company resources and a higher salary compared to their peers. But studies have also shown sycophants often suffer emotional exhaustion from the dual stresses of manipulation and responsibility.
Ongoing research I (Neil) am doing on workplace sycophancy reveals similar patterns. Interviews, spanning from junior staff to CEOs, show reduced motivation, falling team morale and declining respect for sycophants.
One participant highlighted the effect on teamwork that sycophantic behaviour can have within the workplace.
Sycophancy means raising yourself in somebody’s esteem, at the expense of somebody else, on the ladder. And so… it’s going to impact upon on the ability to be part of a team.
Another participant offered a comparison to a different deviant workplace behaviour – intimidation.
I’d say that sycophantic behaviour is coming into the same category as bullying. And it’s hard sometimes, especially with bullying and sycophantic behaviour, you are dealing with a lot of people that are manipulative, and manipulating people are quite charismatic. And when you’re charismatic, you’re more believable because you’re a storyteller.
One solution that emerges from the research is workforce education – teaching employees to recognise and mitigate a culture of ingratiation.
As an employee, many people might find it difficult not to bow to peer pressure. If the senior colleague encourages and rewards those who suck up, how do other colleagues, who do not choose to utilise such tactics, compete?
Dangerous ideas take root
Another factor to consider is the tendency for some workers to “kiss up and kick down”. What this means is that staff who are lower down the hierarchical ladder suffer detrimental treatment from the colleagues who are trying to suck their way up the same ladder.
If workforces were educated on what these tactics looked and felt like, perhaps included in corporate codes of conduct, HR departments and management could identify potential issues and deal with them.
But this is not merely an HR concern. Previous research also shows a link between ingratiation, high turnover rates and poorer performance by the organisation as a whole.
Perhaps the most insidious aspect of sycophancy is the push for conformity when it comes to opinions. If leadership hears nothing but agreement, dangerous ideas can be reinforced. Things like the leader’s own skills or the competence of the organisation as a whole can become wildly exaggerated – with disastrous consequences.
When leaders are surrounded by “yes-men”, they’re deprived of critical input that could challenge assumptions or highlight potential flaws. This can lead to cognitive entrenchment where decision-makers become overconfident and resistant to change. Bad decisions then proceed unchecked, often escalating into systemic failures.
In return, this can lead to groupthink, a phenomenon where a desire for harmony overrides rational evaluation. Environments that suffer from groupthink often ignore red flags, silence whistleblowers and overvalue consensus. All of these things are damaging to an organisation’s ability to remain agile and competitive.
Which brings us back to Trump. In his case this isn’t a corporate crisis. It’s a geopolitical one. At stake is not shareholder value but national security and global stability.
With sycophants backing poor decisions, the risk ranges from damaged diplomacy to outright conflict. If loyalty replaces truth, the cost could be catastrophic. Trump’s regime may ultimately collapse under the weight of its own delusions – but the collateral damage could be profound.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Of all the subjects that could be taught in prisons, philosophy might seem a strange choice. You might think that we should address the educational basics first, since, according to a House of Commons report, 57% of prisoners in England “have English and Maths levels at or below those expected of an eleven-year-old”. You might also expect prison education to focus on the skills needed for employment after release.
In the UK, many people think that prisons should harshly punish offenders, and perhaps see philosophy courses as an unjustifiable luxury for those who have broken the law.
However, we are in a period of potentially significant change for the UK prison system, which has been overcrowded and in poor condition for years.
In my three years of running philosophy courses in prisons, I have witnessed what can be achieved with this kind of education. I have found that philosophy courses can make a big difference to the lives of prisoners and prison culture, often in unexpected ways.
Working with colleagues at the charity Philosophy in Prison and the University of Sheffield, I have led philosophy courses in several English prisons, and found that philosophy is particularly well-suited to prison education. Unlike most topics, philosophy can be taught purely in conversation, without textbooks or technology.
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There are many good reasons for engaging in philosophical conversations with people in prison. Conversations allow almost anyone to get involved, regardless of their levels of literacy. Philosophical conversations can give male prisoners a rare opportunity to relax the rigid norms of masculinity that prisons implicitly enforce.
But one of the biggest benefits I have seen is the effects of these conversations on people’s attitudes towards disagreement. Prisons are overcrowded and often dangerous places, where disagreement can all too easily lead to conflict. Fortunately, philosophy provides an excellent opportunity for constructive dialogue.
Getting philosophical
One of the most intriguing things about philosophy is that nobody knows the answers to the questions it asks of us. Think about questions like, “what makes you the same person you were ten years ago?”, “what is a good life?” or “what is knowledge?”
Such questions get to the heart of what it is to be human, and they have puzzled people for centuries. They require everyone, from the most experienced philosopher to the complete newcomer, to question why we think as we do. They also sharpen our interest in what others have to say.
Take the first of these questions, for example. Perhaps you think that your memories of your past make you the same person that you used to be. But we cannot remember being asleep, and we are presumably not different people when we sleep. So, you might suggest instead, we had the same bodies ten years ago. Except that every part of a human body changes over time – over ten years, every cell in our bodies might be replaced. Now, with just four sentences, the puzzle has been set, and a conversation begun.
Many of the questions we discuss in prison courses originally come from the world of classical philosophy (such as the three mentioned above). And our conversations often explore the ideas of ancient and historical philosophers – whether Aristotle or Bentham has a better understanding of the good life, for example.
In any philosophical conversation, we will quickly realise that disagreement need not involve confrontation: it can be progressive, exciting, even fun. Philosophy helps people develop and practice the conversational norms – and the confidence – needed for positive disagreement. In my experience, prisoners often enter philosophy courses with little expectation that they will have anything to contribute.
Many prisoners “have limited or negative experiences of education and therefore a limited belief in the potential of learning”. But philosophy courses can radically improve people’s confidence, and so help them to rethink what education might mean for them.
One of our course participants summarised this point as follows: “With philosophy, people care about what I think. Nobody listens when you’ve been in prison. Everything you think is wrong, rubbish, you’re nothing.” Another was even more direct: “Hated school, dropped out at 11, can’t read, can’t write. But I can do this.”
Transforming prison culture
Evidence shows that participation in education can significantly reduce the likelihood of reoffending. Yet, as the recent Independent Sentencing Review highlights, the rise in the UK prison population has led to finite resources being diverted away from such programmes.
Philosophy courses can facilitate transformations in prison culture, at relatively little cost. An inspection report into one of the prisons that I have worked in for several years noted that prisoners who took the philosophy courses “reported that their mental health and wellbeing had improved and that they enjoyed the opportunity to participate”.
Moreover, I have seen philosophy courses influence a whole prison wing, as people continued their conversations after we left. One participant said that “being in a room with inmates I didn’t know but ended up talking to went a long way to understanding each other… I now talk to more people on the wing”.
No matter what prisoners may have done, they share in our common humanity. By engaging in philosophy with prisoners, we can address this with very positive results – potentially both in and after prison.
Jim Chamberlain receives funding from The University of Sheffield and from BA/Leverhulme grants to fund philosophy courses in prisons. As well as working for the University of Sheffield, he is a Trustee of the charity Philosophy in Prison. Jim is also a member of the Green Party.
Texas children’s performance on an annual reading test was basically flat from 2012 to 2021, even as the state spent billions of additional dollars on K-12 education.
I recently did a peer-reviewed deep dive into the test design documentation to figure out why the reported results weren’t showing improvement. I found the flat scores were at least in part by design. According to policies buried in the documentation, the agency administering the tests adjusted their difficulty level every year. As a result, roughly the same share of students failed the test over that decade regardless of how objectively better they performed relative to previous years.
From 2008 to 2014, I was a bilingual teacher in Texas. Most of my students’ families hailed from Mexico and Central America and were learning English as a new language. I loved seeing my students’ progress.
Yet, no matter how much they learned, many failed the end-of-year tests in reading, writing and math. My hunch was that these tests were unfair, but I could not explain why. This, among other things, prompted me to pursue a Ph.D. in education to better understand large-scale educational assessment.
Ten years later, in 2024, I completed a detailed exploration of Texas’s exam, currently known as the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness, or STAAR. I found an unexpected trend: The share of students who correctly answered each test question was extraordinarily steady across years. Where we would expect to see fluctuation from year to year, performance instead appears artificially flat.
The STAAR’s technical documents reveal that the test is designed much like a norm-referenced test – that is, assessing students relative to their peers, rather than if they meet a fixed standard. In other words, a norm-referenced test cannot tell us if students meet key, fixed criteria or grade-level standards set by the state.
In addition, norm-referenced tests are designed so that a certain share of students always fail, because success is gauged by one’s position on the “bell curve” in relation to other students. Following this logic, STAAR developers use practices like omitting easier questions and adjusting scores to cancel out gains due to better teaching.
Ultimately, the STAAR tests over this time frame – taken by students every year from grade 3 to grade 8 in language arts and math, and less frequently in science and social studies – were not designed to show improvement. Since the test is designed to keep scores flat, it’s impossible to know for sure if a lack of expected learning gains following big increases in per-student spending was because the extra funds failed to improve teaching and learning, or simply because the test hid the improvements.
Why it matters
Ever since the federal education policy known as No Child Left Behind went into effect in 2002 and tied students’ test performance to rewards and sanctions for schools, achievement testing has been a primary driver of public education in the United States.
Texas’ educational accountability system has been in place since 1980, and it is well known in the state that the stakes and difficulty of Texas’ academic readiness tests increase with each new version, which typically come out every five to 10 years. What the Texas public may not know is that the tests have been adjusted each and every year – at the expense of really knowing who should “pass” or “fail.”
Students who are marginalized by racism, poverty or language have historically tended to underperform on standardized tests. STAAR’s design makes this problem worse.
What still isn’t known
I plan to investigate if other states or the federal government use similarly designed tests to evaluate students.
My deep dive into Texas’ test focused on STAAR before its 2022 redevelopment. The latest iteration has changed the test format and question types, but there appears to be little change to the way the test is scored. Without substantive revisions to the scoring calculations “under the hood” of the STAAR test, it is likely Texas will continue to see flat performance.
The Texas Education Agency, which administers the STAAR tests, didn’t respond to a request for comment.
The Research Brief is a short take on interesting academic work.
Jeanne Sinclair receives funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Heidi Riley, Adjunct Research Fellow, University College Dublin, and Affiliate Researcher in the Department of War Studies, King’s College London
*Some pseudonyms are used to protect the identities of interviewees.
“I saw a lot of suffering.” The old man, Lokwi, gestures towards the woman cooking beside their hut as he talks. “The husband of this woman … was killed here.”
The woman is Lokwi’s sister-in-law. He is recalling the day in 1988 when his brother was killed by soldiers from the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). Lokwi was still a child when the SPLA captured the town of Kapoeta and surrounding settlements, where he lived with his family. The day his brother was killed, everybody was forced to leave:
There was nothing good that day … They burned all the villages and the soldiers attacked the civilians. People were scattered.
South Sudan – a central African country of around 11.5 million people split in half by the White Nile – suffered decades of conflict prior to gaining independence from the rest of Sudan in 2011. While independence brought optimism, this was thwarted two years later by internal disputes among the ruling parties that led to a resurgence of the violence.
While a ceasefire was brokered in 2018 and a power-sharing agreement signed between opposing political factions, there has been a lack of political will to implement it. The dire economic situation, worsening food insecurity driven by climate change and political instability, and legacies of ethnic rivalries continue to perpetuate ethnically motivated violence and distrust between communities. In April, the head of the UN mission in South Sudan, Nicholas Haysom, warned that the world’s youngest nation is once again on the brink of civil war.
Amid this resurgence of violence, Lokwi – who is from the Toposa community – continues to be haunted by memories of the attack that killed his brother. Sitting under the shade of a tree in the village where it took place, he explains how he fled into the bush and survived for days on wild fruit until, starving, he managed to get to the town of Narus, where he was given some food by a local Dinka man.
When Lokwi finally returned to his village, he found everything destroyed by fire – huts, livestock and granaries “all burned”. Whereas he decided to start again and rebuild the village, his surviving brother, now living in Narus, promised “never to step in this land again because of the memories and pain”.
Today, Lokwi works as a peace activist in South Sudan. He spends a lot of time encouraging people in his village and the surrounding area to engage in peaceful dialogue with rival groups – and to resist violence. With an expression of concern, he explains the difficulties he faces in dissuading young men from engaging in violence:
When I tell them to stop the conflict … we have homes and families who listen and stay calm, but other individuals like the [male] youths don’t listen, they still create problems.
South Sudan’s long history of cattle raiding
Over the course of 2024, Anna Adiyo Sebit and three other South Sudanese researchers interviewed more than 400 men and women from South Sudan’s Toposa and Nuer communities as part of the XCEPT programme. This programme, based at King’s College London, seeks to understand the role that conflict-related trauma plays in influencing who engages in violence and who doesn’t.
As well as inter-ethnic fighting, South Sudan has a long history of cattle raiding. Cattle are central to the pastoralist communities which make up over half of the population, including ethnic groups such as the Dinka, Nuer and Toposa.
In most rural households, financial capital is typically held in livestock, mainly cows – which are also required for dowry payments and as compensation for any crimes committed. This places high value on cattle ownership, meaning that raiding and inter-community disputes over cattle are common.
And whereas these disputes were once fought with sticks, stones and spears, years of political conflict have left the country awash with guns – so cattle raiding has become a lethal activity. As one old man who described himself as a “retired warrior” explained:
In our grandparents’ and grand ancestors’ [time], in battles or fighting we used stones, pangas, sticks, spears and arrows. [At this time there were] rare fights or raids waged against [other] tribes … But after the introduction of AK-47 machine guns, it accelerated [to] higher numbers of raids and increased casualties in both communities.
Among these pastoralist communities, gender norms determine that where women and girls are tasked with maintaining domestic life, including sustaining subsistence farming and constructing huts, men are expected to keep and secure cattle. Many young men are active in cattle camps, which are in areas with better pastures where cows are taken to graze – but can be vulnerable to raids from other ethnic groups.
In many parts of rural South Sudan, young men are expected to fight to secure and protect their livelihood – including achieving the required “bride price” for their marriage to go ahead. Successful cattle raids can earn a young man respect among his peers.
But the trauma of experiencing violence from a young age, as so many of these young men have, is likely to be a factor in the perpetuation of various forms of violence in adulthood, including the prevalence of revenge killings.
The high rates of violence are also having a devastating impact on women and girls in South Sudan. According to a 2024 UN Population Fund study, 65% of women and girls have experienced some form of gender-based violence, of which intimate partner violence is the most prevalent. The UN Mission in South Sudan has also reported a steep increase in sexual violence and abductions of women and girls by armed groups in 2024.
Aware of the prevalence of violence against women by cattle youth, Lokwi speaks of confronting the issue at community meetings in his village where he brings together members of rival communities:
The youths are also part of the meeting. Everybody is given the chance from both communities to talk, and we tell them ‘stop killing women in the bush’. I tell them that women are the ones who give birth to generations, and [ask]: ‘Why do you kill women?’ [Some] will feel touched and listen and stop – but there are other individuals [for] whom killing is part of their life … They will still kill women.
Masculine expectations
In South Sudan, like many countries, masculine expectations that associate men with being the provider or protector, and with characteristics of strength, stoicism and bravery, play an important role in how men experience trauma and the coping mechanisms they use.
Men are often socialised into suppressing emotions such as sadness or hurt. As a result, alternative outlets for dealing with trauma and stress can manifest in more violent or aggressive emotions.
I have spent many years researching how societal expectations of masculinity play into the way men respond to traumatic experiences. In narratives of wartime suffering, our understanding of male trauma is often overshadowed by the association of masculinity with the perpetration of violence.
While not all men suffering from trauma respond in the same way, research by the Brazilian NGO Promundo has found that men and boys are more likely than women and girls to exhibit maladaptive coping behaviour such as risk-taking, low physical activity, withdrawal and self-harm – or violence in its multiple forms. There is also evidence that rates of alcohol and substance abuse are higher among men affected by trauma or high levels of stress.
During conflict or in situations of acute food insecurity, daily stresses through an inability to fulfil masculine expectations can become particularly acute – and lead to increasingly violent behaviour. This pattern emerges in many of the interviews conducted for the XCEPT project.
Eric, from the South Sudan state of Eastern Equatoria, lost his father when he was ten. His father was a fairly wealthy man but after his death, that wealth was passed on to Eric’s uncles on his father’s side, rather than his mother or her three co-wives. (The tradition of inheritance passing to male relatives is reflective of women’s lack of economic independence in rural South Sudan.)
Eric was then required to respect his uncles as stepfathers as they became the de facto authority over his mother, her co-wives and their children. As the oldest son, he endured years of beatings from his stepfathers, as well as witnessing violence by them against his mother.
Upon reaching adulthood, Eric said he realised he was able to escape the “catastrophic mistreatment from his stepfathers” and needed to “adventure” for his own survival. However, due to food shortages, survival meant engaging in cattle raiding.
On his first raid, his “warrior group” secured a herd of cattle by killing the cattle owner. Eric was granted four cows – but apart from one, these had to be handed over to his stepfathers. As he explained:
On my arrival, people in my village were excited to see me back without any injuries and I brought these cows. On [the] spot, my stepfathers took them. As in [the] culture of Toposa, anything from your enemies belongs to elder people. I was only left with one cow.
On his second raid, Eric secured 30 goats, of which his stepfathers allowed him to keep ten.
Aware of the suffering that this raiding had caused and now with an established reputation as a “warrior”, Eric then stepped back from raiding and used the ten goats to breed more. This gave him the resources for marriage and to start a family – but he carried the legacy of his involvement in the killings during past raids, and the knowledge that he was now a target for retaliatory violence. He explained:
So far, I have killed six enemies; hence am also included as a warrior in my community. I do not want them [the enemy] to know my name because they will kill me if they know me.
For Eric and many other men like him in South Sudan, it is difficult to show emotions such as sadness or fear, as this could be interpreted as a sign of weakness. Our researcher and interviewer, Anna Adiyo Sebit, describes the expectations placed on men in her culture: “As a man, even when someone dies, you do not shed a tear, especially in front of women. Instead, you cry from your heart inside.”
The trauma of war
Ten years ago, while conducting fieldwork in Nepal for my PhD and book, I interviewed more than 60 former members of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to examine how their participation in the civil war – known as the People’s War – affected notions of masculinity within the armed group.
While I never asked about trauma or psychological difficulties, it became clear these were present for many of the men – just never explicitly spoken about. Instead, they would talk about their sense of disillusionment or lack of ability to fulfil societal expectations of masculinity – all the while, carefully keeping their emotions in check.
These emotions would only surface in more casual conversations over tea or food, following the formal interviews. In these moments, the men revealed a more vulnerable side – often expressing sadness, frustration, and a desire to share their more personal stories.
It was a clear shift from the displays of hardened masculinity in their narratives of the battlefield. Some of these informal exchanges hinted at signs of PTSD – for example, in their descriptions of flashbacks, sleep difficulties and short temperedness. One young man who was extremely polite and courteous became very fidgety after the end of the interview. He told me: “In the night I can’t sleep, because I hear bomb blasts inside my head.”
Another, clearly proud of his role in the People’s War, recounted his bravery on the battlefield. Yet, when he spoke of the six months of torture he had endured in police custody, his composure faltered and he struggled to hold back tears. He showed me a photo of his three-year-old child, saying: “This is why I will never return to battle.”
What I encountered was men who appeared uneasy about expressing emotions as this runs contrary to masculine expectations, but were also frustrated at a lack of outlets to tell their story.
During one interview with a former PLA member in the western district of Bardiya, I noticed a group of ex-PLA fighters gathered at the boundary of his home after they had heard an interview was taking place. As my interpreter and I were leaving, a thin man at the front of the crowd began shouting aggressively at us.
Having initially assumed his anger was directed at my presence in the area, I realised it stemmed from his frustration at not being selected for an interview. “Why does everyone always want to interview you?” he shouted at the man I had just spoken to. The former fighter’s anger, fuelled by alcohol, appeared to reflect his frustration at lacking a platform to share his own story.
From Nepal in 2016 to South Sudan in 2024, amid the violence and trauma of war and the daily expectations of masculinity associated with being a provider and protector, there appeared to be few outlets through which these men could talk freely about their emotions, tell their stories, and admit their mental health difficulties.
Many of the men interviewed in South Sudan had been involved in violent clashes involving killings at some point in their lives. In interviews carried out in Kapoeta North, a county in eastern Equatoria, some men reported having constant flashbacks to the sounds of gunshots – when they tried to sleep at night, these sounds would “become real”, stopping them getting any proper rest:
Sometimes you can wake up in the middle of the night and find yourself trembling as if these people are coming for you.
One man explained how he would get up in the night to follow a “black shadow” like a ghost. When community members would run after him to stop him, he would become “hostile and behave like he wants to kill everyone” – because, he explained, he saw his friend being killed on the battlefield and the memory of this would not leave him, especially in the night.
A woman described how, when young men are involved in “killing”, their “mind is not functioning well”. Contextualising this claim she explained: “There was this man who got traumatised due to the ongoing conflict of raiding. He fought many battles until the gunshot sound affected his brain and made him crazy.”
She then described a man who could not accept his friend had died in a cattle camp raid and insisted on returning to the battlefield, even though the community told him not to. “After confirming [his friend’s death] he ran mad and became confused. We say that such a person had his heart broken by the incident he witnessed, and we say he is mad.”
Men whose companions have been killed can become fixated on revenge, as Sebit explains, “It will torture their mind until they go and avenge the death of the person that was killed.” Some will encourage them to take revenge but others, like Lokwi, are trying to discourage revenge killings and working towards peaceful resolution of disputes through dialogue.
Societal expectations of masculinity
The link between societal expectations of masculinity, trauma and violent behaviour among men is important in better understanding ongoing insecurities in rural South Sudan. A man is supposed to own cows in order to gain respect from their community. Without these, they can be rejected – leading to feelings of isolation, despair and a fear of ridicule.
As noted by another elderly interviewee: “If a man does not go for raiding, he will be cursed by elders. [In contrast], if he comes back with cows, people will celebrate – and if he dies, people will say he died as a warrior.”
It can be a vicious circle. If you do not get cows when you raid another community, this may lead to further feelings of shame – driving the young men to put themselves at further risk. In a state of stress and having grown up in a culture of conflict, they may regard themselves as having no choice but to risk death in the quest for cows. Those who have been orphaned or do not have other family members to support them can be particularly vulnerable to this.
Such concerns about masculinity emerge in many of the interviews with young men in South Sudan – and also in discussions with support workers there. Catholic Relief Services (CRS) is one of the few organisations in South Sudan who have run trauma awareness training for men. A local CRS programme manager, Luol, explained to me in an online meeting how men’s worries about marriage rights can spiral into acts of violence:
What is actually happening in [young men’s] brains is they are thinking: ‘Okay, I am 18 or 17 years old now, in the next two years I have to have my partner at home, but I don’t have resources. [So] the best way to get resources is to raid or steal people’s properties.’ This is the thinking of war. This is the thinking of a person who has been exposed to conflict – that the best way to get resources is to raid from somebody.
In another meeting, Luol described his experience of facilitating trauma awareness programmes with men. He explained that “many of the men have participated in cattle raiding and have seen horrific kinds of events such as, seeing somebody [being] killed, and [they] can be traumatised because [they] participated in that war [raid].”
Luol described one young man who came and spoke to him after the first day of training:
He wanted to testify that he’s now recovering from his trauma because he participated in the war and he saw children and women being killed and when he returned home, he saw [in] his own children, the children who were killed, and he cried, he felt ashamed for participating and playing a part in this. And he was trying to recover from that effect of trauma. And that’s very common. Most of the young men who participate in war come back traumatised.
The importance of such outlets for men to come and talk together about their emotions was emphasised in our meeting. For cultural reasons, neither individual counselling sessions nor sessions including women would be acceptable to the men.As noted by another local CRS staff member :
If women are in that group, the men are likely not to talk about [trauma] because of masculinity issues. They don’t want the women to hear men accepting weakness or vulnerability … But if the men are talking alone [about] their life they will say: ‘Yes, this is what happened to me, and this is how we can move forward.’
While these sessions are not supposed to be a form of restorative justice or “amnesty” for crimes committed, Luol explained that opening up about feelings of guilt in the small group is helpful in addressing “displaced anger” that can manifest in continued violence in the community, clan or in the family.
CRS Trauma Awareness and Social Cohesion programmes also encourage discussions of alternatives to violence or cattle raiding, presenting a longer-term life vision for those present. According to one attendee, his less traumatised brain allows for rational thinking such as: “If I start cultivating this year and I want to marry in two or three years’ time, I’ll be able to produce the crops, sell them in the market, and then buy cows if I need to buy cows.”
The programme was piloted in South Sudan’s Greater Jonglei State in 2014 using CRS private funding. Three years later it secured funding from USAID after “demonstrating its value”. In 2020, with additional funding from the EU, the programme was expanded to areas of Eastern Equatoria. While the programme has now ended with the completion of its funding cycle, CRS continues to seek future funding to re-establish the initiative.
Soldiers celebrate the anniversary of South Sudan’s independence day, which briefly brought peace. Richard Juilliart/Shutterstock
‘Everything gets destroyed’
While recognising that most men do not engage in violence, the reality is men are overwhelmingly responsible for violence when it does occur. This is the case in South Sudan as in all countries. It is therefore vital to engage with men, not just as perpetrators of violence but as potential peacemakers.
Unfortunately, gender stereotyping within the humanitarian and donor sector has resulted in a lack of trauma response targeted at men. Instead, men and boys tend to be framed as perpetual perpetrators of violence and discrimination – as “emasculated troublemakers” not worth engaging with, or at best by the “men can cope by themselves” narrative.
Wider research by XCEPT has found that out of 12 humanitarian organisations interviewed in northern Syria, northern Iraq and South Sudan, only two had programmes specifically targeted at men. The situation appears little changed from the conclusion reached in the 2021 Promondo report, which stated:
This de-prioritisation of boys and men in emergency response is rooted in donors’ and international organisations’ lack of political will to meaningfully acknowledge that vulnerability exists beyond women and girls … Chronic inattention to boys and men has resulted in programs, services and spaces not being sufficiently tailored to meet their needs.
This not only has an impact on men and boys’ wellbeing. It also fails to take on board the reality that unaddressed trauma among men correlates with increases in community violence, revenge killings, cattle raiding and gender-based violence suffered by women and girls. As an international CRS staff member explained:
Unless donors have a way of facing [the reality of trauma] and addressing it in all interventions, all the money we’re spending on health programs and infrastructure programs and education programs and whatever it is, it’s just money down the drain. Because eventually, everything gets destroyed in violence.
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Heidi Riley receives funding from the Cross-Border Conflict Evidence, Policy and Trends (XCEPT) research programme, funded by UK International Development from the UK government. (Views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the UK government’s official policies.) She also received funding from the Irish Research Council for the Nepal research mentioned. Sincere thanks to Anna Adiyo Sebit, expert researcher with Catholic Relief Services in South Sudan, for her fieldwork and other contributions to this article.
It was first started one morning in 2015. I travelled 109 kilometres from Palangka Raya to a village in the Katingan River basin, Central Kalimantan. When I entered the village, I could feel the sound of the Gandang Ahung, the sacred gong ensemble used in the Tiwah death ceremony, vibrating in my chest. Its frequency filled the entire space, uniting humans, spirits, and nature in a single breath. Some people closed their eyes; even the forest outside seemed to hum along.
Amidst the chanting, the ritual began: participants danced around the field where the Tiwah ceremony was held. Their distinctive hand and foot movements followed the rhythm. Baram, a traditional liquor from Katingan, was then shared among the dancers.
The sound of Gandang Ahung lingered in the air, summoning spirits from the river’s rise and fall to partake in the sacred offering of blood. It opened the path to the upper realm —Lewu Rami je dia Kasene Beti Lewu Tatau Habaras Bulau Rundung Janah dia Bakalesu Uhat — the radiant village beyond time, where souls find rest in Hindu-Kaharingan cosmology.
Gandang Ahung is not only a form of cultural heritage, but an inseparable part of how the Katingan Awa Dayak community understands life, death, and their relationship with nature.
In the Katingan Awa Dayak tradition, Tiwah is regarded as the second-level death ceremony, conducted long after the initial or first-level funeral. The first stage involves the immediate handling of the body, burial, and essential rites to initiate the soul’s journey—considered a temporary phase, as the soul remains in transition.
The second-level Tiwah, serves as the final ritual to guide the soul to the afterlife, reunite it with ancestors, and restore harmony between humans, spirits, and nature. It includes the exhumation and ceremonial cleansing of the bones, reburial in a family bone house (pambak), and is marked by extensive communal offerings, music, and dance.
There are no “spectators” in the ceremony: all villagers are participants. Children help, the pisur (religious leaders) lead, and the entire community listens not just with their ears but with their full presence. For months, families, neighbors, and religious leaders work together to prepare this procession.
Gandang Ahung, with its echoes and vibrations, plays a central role in the ceremony: It opens the way for the liau (spirits) to reach Lewu Tatau.
Gandang Ahung can be carried anywhere, depending on the needs of the ritual. Interestingly, the instrument never sounds the same from one location to another, corresponding to the space where it is played. This shows how its sound is inseparable from surrounding land, rivers, and trees.
Unlike how music comes through notation, tempo, and technique in the West, sound flows from relationships in the Katingan Awa community. The player, the community, and the spirits shape the sound. The player does not simply follow the beat – he adjusts his strokes to the dancer’s body movements.
The tone is not dictated by a written score but arises from feeling — what is “right” in the moment. Here, in the ritual space, sound becomes a mode of communication, not merely a performance.
Some pisur I spoke with explained that the rhythm of Gandang Ahung is not measured in beats, but guided by breath and intuition. The beats are slow for the Tiwah ceremony to accompany the Manganjan dance, a dance specifically for the Tiwah ceremony.
When forests are lost, sounds like Gandang Ahung and their profound meanings also slowly fade. The Gandang Ahung is not merely played — it is brought to life in rituals deeply rooted in nature: from the wood used to craft the drums, to the ceremonial space in the village heart, to the spirits believed to inhabit trees, rivers, and lakes.
Hindu-Kaharingan itself, though recognised by the government, is often dismissed as mere ‘folklore’ or an ‘outdated tradition.’ Practices like Tiwah rarely appear in mainstream media – let alone gain recognition in national academic discourse.
If Indonesia is truly committed to education and cultural preservation, we must start viewing traditions like Gandang Ahung not simply as artefacts, but as living philosophies and practices.
Like classical music theory, these traditions are built on their own systems, ethics, and methodologies. They need to be taught, respected, and lived — not just documented and then forgotten.
Concrete steps include protecting customary forests as soundscapes, integrating local music traditions into school curricula, and involving communities in the documentation of rituals.
The Schools of Living Traditions (SLT) program in the Philippines, run by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), offer a powerful example. The program has successfully preserved traditional arts and music through non-formal education that involves local cultural experts as teachers. It is recognized by UNESCO as a best practice in safeguarding intangible cultural heritage.
Such measures are vital to ensure that sounds like Gandang Ahung transcend nostalgia and continue to thrive — not just in ceremonies, but in the everyday lives of the Katingan Awa community and Indonesians more broadly.
Muhammad Rayhan Sudrajat tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.
Source: The Conversation – France – By Justine Loizeau, Postdoctoral research fellow in sustainability and organization, Aalto University
As early as 1917, the Michelin company invested in plantations to produce rubber in what is now Vietnam. Here, hevea trees are seen in Southeast Asia in 1913.W. F. de Bois Maclaren, The Rubber Tree Book.
Half of the world’s forests were destroyed during the 20th century, with three regions mainly affected: South America, West Africa and Southeast Asia. The situation has worsened to the point that, in 2023, the European Parliament voted to ban the import of chocolate, coffee, palm oil and rubber linked to deforestation.
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A long-standing dependence on raw materials
These products are at the heart of our economies and consumption habits. The case of rubber is particularly emblematic. Without this material, there would be no tyres and, thus, no cars, bicycles, sealing joints or submarine communication cables. Industrial rubber production depends on extracting latex, a natural substance that rubber trees such as hevea produce. Under pressure from corporations and states, Brussels last October announced a one-year postponement of its law regulating rubber imports.
This dependence on the rubber industry is not new. Rubber was central to the second industrial revolution, especially with the rise of automobiles and new management methods. While this history often centres on factories, citing contributions from figures such as Frederick Taylor and Henry Ford and industrial giants like Michelin, its colonial roots are less well known.
Indeed, rubber – like the other resources mentioned above – has been and continues to be primarily produced in former colonial territories. In many cases, rubber trees are not native to the regions where they have been cultivated. Rubber seeds from South America, where latex was already extracted by picking, were transported by colonists to empires for the development of plantations. In particular, the French colonial empire, spanning Africa and Southeast Asia, saw a significant expansion of hevea plantations at the expense of primary forests. Monocultures of rubber trees replaced thousands of hectares.
Ford in the Amazon, Michelin in present-day Vietnam
This management model was favoured because it allowed for lower extraction costs from the coloniser’s perspective. For example, in 1928, Henry Ford negotiated an agreement with the Brazilian government granting him a 10,000 km2 concession of forest land to establish Fordlandia, a settlement designed to produce the rubber needed for his factories. However, this industrial utopia in the Amazon failed due to resistance from Indigenous people and a fungal disease that ruined the plantations.
Business Insider reports on the Fordlandia fiasco.
Following the same model, Michelin invested in plantations in present-day Vietnam as early as 1917. The plantation model and new management methods reduced the cost of rubber production and accelerated its global distribution. These management practices spread across the British, Dutch and French empires, becoming dominant in Southeast Asia in the early 20th century at the expense of primary forests.
Rubber plantations resulted from applying Taylorism not only to workers – especially colonised workers – but also to nature. Both people and trees were subjected to a so-called “scientific” organisation of labour. In our article, L’arbre qui gâche la forêtThe Tree That Spoils the Forest, published in the Revue française de gestion (French Journal of Management) in 2024, we analysed historical archives, including a variety of newspapers from 1900 to 1950, covering national, local, colonial and thematic (scientific, cultural, etc.) perspectives. We show that this organisational model is based on an accounting undervaluation of indigenous people’s labour and of nature. This undervaluation is embodied in the metric of the cost price (i.e. the total cost of production and distribution) and in the shared concern to see it lowered. “Ultimately, it’s the cost price that must determine the fate of rubber,” stated the newspaper L’Information financière, économique et politique on February 1, 1914.
In the eyes of some, Asians who were labelled as “coolies” and Brazilian “seringueiros” comprised a low-cost labour pool, with no mention of their working conditions and despite very high mortality rates. “Coolie” is a derogatory colonial term that refers to agricultural labourers of Asian heritage, while “seringueiros” refers to workers in South American rubber plantations.
“By the way, in the Far East, there are reservoirs of labour (Java Island, English Indies), which supply plantations with workers who, while not the most robust, provide regular work at a very advantageous cost price.” (L’Information financière, économique et politique, November 11, 1922)
Concerning trees, only the plantation costs were considered, silencing the human and ecological costs of primary forest destruction.
“In the first year, some 237 francs will have to be spent on the clearing itself; then the planting, with staking […] and weeding, will represent an expense of 356 francs. […] For the following years, all that remains to be done is to consider the maintenance costs, cleaning, pruning, care, supply of stakes, replacement, etc. This will result in an expenditure of 1,250 francs for the first five years.” (L’Information financière, économique et politique, January 31, 1912)
The ‘Cheapization’ of life
The focus on cost price leads to standardisation of management practices by aligning with what is cheapest, at the expense of ever more intense exploitation of human and non-human workers. In other words, these assumptions about the construction of accounting metrics and the circulation of these metrics play a role in the “cheapization” of human and non-human labour. We borrow the concept of “cheapization” from the environmental historian Jason W. Moore. In his view, the development of capitalism is marked by a “cheapization of Nature”, which includes, within the circuits of capitalist production and consumption, humans and non-humans whose work does not initially have a market value. Living beings are thus transformed into a commodity or factor of production: “animals, soils, forests and all kinds of extra-human nature” are being put to work.
These ways of managing people and nature continue to this day. Many industries still rely on the extraction of natural resources at low cost and in large quantities in the countries of the global south. Rubber is not the only resource whose exploitation dates to the Industrial Revolution: palm oil, sugar, coffee and cocoa have also had, and still have, an impact on the forests of the global south and are based on the work of local people. The exploitation of these resources is also often the fruit of colonial history. In 1911, the Frenchman Henri Fauconnier brought the first palm oil seeds, a plant originally from Africa, to Malaysia. More than a century later, the country remains a leading palm oil producer, a resource largely responsible for the deforestation of primary forests.
Beyond the case of rubber alone, we question the link between the pursuit of profit in formerly colonised territories, the destruction of the environment and the exploitation of local populations on two levels. Not only are primary forests destroyed to feed short-term profits, but habituation to this mode of environmental management is a historical construct. We must remember this when looking at news from countries with colonial pasts. Whether we’re talking about preserving the Amazon rainforest, poisoning soil and human bodies with chlordecone in the Antilles, or building a pipeline in Uganda, we need to take a step back. What are the historical responsibilities? What are the links between creating economic activities here and exploiting ecosystems and local populations there? What role do management theories and tools play in realising or reproducing these exploitative situations?
At a time when the ecological and social emergency is constantly invoked to call for the transformation of management practices and business models, the rubber example invites us to consider the colonial matrix of managerial practices and the Western historical responsibilities that led to this same emergency. And suppose we have to turn to other forms of management tomorrow: who may legitimately decide how to bring about this change? Are former colonisers best placed to define the way forward? Knowledge of colonial history should encourage us to recognise the value of the knowledge and practices of those who were and remain the first to be affected.
The COCOLE project is supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR), which funds project-based research in France. The ANR’s mission is to support and promote the development of fundamental and applied research in all disciplines, and to strengthen dialogue between science and society. To find out more, visit the ANR website.
Antoine Fabre has received funding from the French National Research Agency
via the programme “Counting in a colonial situation. French Africa (1830-1962)” (ANR-21-CE41-0012, 2021-2026).
Pierre Labardin is a professor at La Rochelle University. He has received funding from the French National Research Agency via the programme “Counting in a colonial situation. French Africa (1830-1962)” (ANR-21-CE41-0012, 2021-2026).
Clément Boyer et Justine Loizeau ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d’une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n’ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur poste universitaire.
Robert F. Kennedy Jr., the health and human services secretary in the United States, held a recent news conference and made uninformed comments on autism. His remarks created an uproar, especially among people with autism and other disabilities.
“Autism destroys families, and more importantly, it destroys our greatest resource, which is our children. These are children who should not be
suffering like this … And these are kids who will never pay taxes. They’ll never hold a job. They’ll never play baseball. They’ll never write a poem. They’ll never go out on a date. Many of them will never use a toilet unassisted.”
We are researchers whose combined focus covers the rights of people with disabilities in educational systems and the history of disability in medical discourse. One of us is a sibling (Cornelia) and the other a parent (Martha) to people with intellectual disabilities.
Eugenics is the belief that society can and should be “improved” through selective breeding. It is based on a pseudo-scientific ranking of humans in a racist and ableist hierachy that judges non-white and disabled people to be the least desirable.
During the height of the movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, eugenics was promoted by scientists, physicians, politicians and clergy, authoritative voices who encouraged the “fittest” to reproduce while recommending that those people with “undesirable” physical or intellectual traits be removed from society. Part of achieving this goal meant people with disabilities were sterilized or institutionalized.
A formal condemnation of Nazi actions in the form of the Nuremberg Trials fostered a popular backlash to these Nazi horrors after the Second World War, resulting in a global repudiation of eugenic ideas and a gradual phasing out of practices such as sterilization and institutionalization of people with disabilities.
Eugenics ideas exist in the form of what bioethicist and humanities scholar Rosemarie Garland-Thomson calls “eugenic logic.” This is the ongoing belief that erasing disability and people with disabilities is a desirable and common-sense objective.
The power of eugenics logic surrounds us. It shapes immigration policy that penalizes disability. It means reproductive technologies and medical practices are used to eliminate certain conditions that cause disabilities.
Neoliberal ableism links human value to their capacity to work, to what disability studies scholars Dan Goodley and Rebecca Lawthom refer to the ability to “productively contribute … bounded and cut off from others, capable, malleable and compliant.”
People with autism, and others who cannot serve society in this way, threaten the neoliberal order and capitalism. They are seen as a detriment to society.
However, some critics unwittingly reinforced his neoliberal and eugenic framing of human value. These critics rightly contradicted Kennedy Jr. by pointing out that many people with autism have capabilities that he denied them. However, focusing on those abilities gave support to the devaluation of people with autism — and others with disabilities — who do not possess them, and who cannot be independent or will never be “productive workers.”
The social model of disability
Uninformed comments about autism by people in official health leadership positions threatens to undo decades of work that led to remarkable gains for people with disabilities.
The 1970s and ‘80s saw the development of what disability activists and scholars discuss as the social model of disability. This shifted the understanding of disability away from the “problem” of individuals’ physical/intellectual conditions. Disability is seen as a mismatch of the interactions between the impairment and the barriers it faces in the (social) environment.
This important shift in how disability is understood rejected the notion that disability is a personal fault or flaw. For the first time, it paid attention to environmental, financial and attitudinal barriers. It allowed people with disabilities unprecedented access to education and other aspects of society.
The progress made remains fragile.
Important to push back
All who value human diversity and the continued expansion of the rights of people with disabilities must push back against eugenics politics.
Political parties and broader society must commit to full participation and belonging of all people with disabilities by continuing to remove physical, attitudinal and financial barriers.
It means we need to heed the voices of disability advocates who have launched a court challenge against a key provision of Medical Assistance in Dying legislation. A recent version of this legislation accepts disability without a terminal condition as a reason to end life. As advocates recently told the United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, this implies that a disabled life is not worth living.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation – Canada – By E. Richard Gold, Professor of intellectual property and innovation, Faculty of Law and Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University
The 2025 G7 Leaders’ Summit will be held in Kananaskis, Alta., from June 15 to 17. As host of the G7, Canada has a chance to shape rules that will govern AI globally.(Shutterstock)
While AI headlines often focus on breakthroughs in generative models and robotics, the real engine of progress lies in less glamorous terrain: computing infrastructure and data systems.
Canada’s proposal to build “next-generation data centres” is about creating the backbone for globally competitive and ethically governed AI. Without these facilities, modern AI systems cannot be trained, validated or deployed responsibly.
AI models — like those used in medicine for developing new drugs and health services, clean technologies such as clean energy and carbon-capture or materials science — require enormous computational power and massive datasets. That data must be structured, validated and — to the extent possible — open to those who can use it.
Yet across many domains, useful data remains siloed and locked in proprietary formats, lacking documentation or inaccessible due to legal and technical barriers. This status quo serves monopolies, not society.
Canada holds the G7 presidency in 2025, and can provide leadership in data governance and AI innovation. A central priority should be to rally partners around a framework for ethical, accessible and well-designed datasets, especially in fields like health, climate science and materials research.
Tailored data
Our call for open data isn’t one-size-fits-all. It must be tailored to the needs of specific sectors:
Health-care AI requires anonymized patient data, genomic sequences, protein structure data, toxicology and carcinogen data, and drug response datasets.
Climate AI needs long-term environmental records, satellite imagery, power and water use information and real-time emissions data.
Materials science AI demands chemical interaction data, physical testing results, structural data and thermodynamic properties.
What binds these fields is a common challenge: ensuring data is ethically sourced, high-quality, and useable across borders and institutions. Canada’s role should be to help build the platforms — digital, legal and diplomatic — that make this possible.
A G7 mandate
As host of the G7 in June, Canada can push for a transformative international commitment. At a minimum, this should include:
Common standards for open datasets, co-designed with input from AI developers, health professionals, climate researchers, materials scientists and legal experts.
Trusted data hubs, managed by public-private or non-profit entities, ensuring secure storage, privacy safeguards and public access.
Legal and diplomatic co-ordination, addressing cross-border data sharing, intellectual property constraints and ethical governance frameworks.
These steps would position the G7 — and Canada in particular — as a champion of AI that serves democratic values on top of commercial and geopolitical interests.
Dataset platforms such as AIRCHECK(for AI-based chemical knowledge) and the CACHE competition (evaluating drug discovery models using open data), show how Canada is already putting together the building blocks of responsible AI. But the country risks squandering this advantage if it cannot scale these efforts or retain innovation domestically.
Without clear domestic rules, and a proactive global agenda, Canada could end up as an incubator for innovations that end up developed and applied elsewhere.
Global stakes
The AI race is not just about who builds the most powerful models. It’s about who defines the technical, ethical and geopolitical standards that shape the digital future.
The G7 offers Canada a moment of strategic clarity. By investing in AI infrastructure and leading an international agenda on open, trustworthy AI, Canada can lead in shaping the rules.
E. Richard Gold receives funding from TRIDENT: TRanslational Initiative to DE-risk NeuroTherapeutics, a project funded by the New Frontiers in Research Fund, application NFRFT-2022-00051. Gold is also the Chief Policy and Partnerships Officer of Conscience, a Canadian non-profit focused on enabling drug discovery and development in areas where open sharing and collaboration are key to advancement and where market solutions are limited, such as rare or neglected diseases, pandemic preparedness, and antimicrobial resistance.
Cristina Vanberghen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
President Donald Trump delivers the commencement address at West Point on May 24, 2025.AP Photo/Adam Gray
President Donald Trump’s speech at the graduation of the class of 2025 from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point included segments that were clearly scripted and portions that were obviously not.
During the unscripted portions, Trump, who wore a bright red “Make America Great Again” campaign hat during his entire appearance on May 24, 2025, delivered remarks that hit many of his frequent partisan political talking points. That included attacking presidential predecessors Barack Obama and Joe Biden, describing immigrants to the U.S. as “criminals” and trumpeting other policy accomplishments in his first and second terms.
That level of partisanship in a military setting – on the campus of the nation’s first military academy, and before an audience of cadets and their families, many of whom are veterans – is unusual in the United States.
The Conversation U.S. has published several articles discussing the importance to democracy of keeping the military and partisan politics separate. Here are three highlights from that coverage.
1. Cadets focus on the Constitution
During the West Point ceremony, the graduates themselves took an oath to “support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic.” And all of them had studied the significance of that oath, including in classes like those taught by Joseph G. Amoroso and Lee Robinson, active-duty Army officers who graduated from West Point and later served as professors there.
As Amoroso and Robinson wrote, those classes teach cadets that, like all military personnel, they serve the Constitution and the American people, not a particular person or political party:
“(O)ur oath forms the basis of a nonpartisan ethic. In the U.S., unlike in many other countries, the oath implies military leaders should be trusted for their expertise and judgment, not for their loyalty to an individual or political party. We emphasize to cadets the rules and professional expectations associated with this profound responsibility.”
Retired U.S. Air Force Maj. Gen. Samuel C. Mahaney, who teaches history, national security and constitutional law at Missouri University of Science and Technology, observed:
“(S)ince the days of George Washington, the military has been dedicated to serving the nation, not a specific person or political agenda. … (N)onpartisanship is central to the military’s primary mission of defending the country.”
Mahaney wrote that if Trump’s actions during his second term meant a change from the centuries of precedent, “military personnel at all levels would face a crucial question: Would they stand up for the military’s independent role in maintaining the integrity and stability of American democracy or follow the president’s orders – even if those orders crossed a line that made them illegal or unconstitutional?”
Marcus Hedahl and Bradley Jay Strawser, professors of philosophy who teach military ethics at the U.S. Naval Academy and the Naval Postgraduate School, respectively, explain the reason for this long-standing focus on keeping politicians and politics separate from military action.
“To minimize the chance of the kind of military occupation they suffered during the Revolutionary War, the country’s founders wrote the Constitution requiring that the president, an elected civilian, would be the commander in chief of the military. In the wake of World War II, Congress went even further, restructuring the military and requiring that the secretary of defense be a civilian as well.”
As they observed, “… the framers always intended it to be the people’s military – not the president’s.”
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Louise Kenward, PhD Candidate, Centre for Place Writing, Manchester Metropolitan University
The ‘test’ or skeleton of a heart sea urchin, found on a beach at Rye harbour, East Sussex. Louise Kenward, CC BY-NC-ND
Wild swimming and forest bathing have gained in popularity, all in a bid to improve our health. With “green prescriptions” now being issued by doctors instructing patients to spend time outdoors, ideas of “nature cure” – spending time in the natural world for healing purposes – may seem like a recent development.
But ideas of a change of air and sea cures were popularised in the 19th century. Escalating rates of tuberculosis were exacerbated by poor sanitation and overcrowding. Patients were sent to the coast for convalescence in open-air wards – offering an antidote to these contributory factors, but not a cure for the disease itself.
So, for centuries, the term “nature” has been associated with goodness, health and cure. My research uses creative writing to investigate the natural world through my experience of living with chronic illness, pain and fatigue. While this challenges the notion often found in nature and place writing that the natural world can somehow heal whatever you need it to, it has helped me think differently about the relationship between the outside and our health.
Built on foundations that regarded disability as “unnatural”, eugenics is a proposed form of selective breeding that seeks to control inherited characteristics through forced sterilisation and euthanasia. These are ideas that allow and enable society to regard disabled people as “less than” and continue to bubble beneath the surface with the assisted dying debate.
In medicine, disability is regarded as a medical problem. The social model of disability reframes this as a societal issue of barriers that limit disabled people’s access to society (for example, through travel or education). I live with chronic illness where both the medical and social models are relevant. So, for me, the parallels between nature and health are complex.
Conventional nature writing and “place writing” – a form of creative writing that explores the landscape and our relationship within that environment – typically explore ideas from the biased perspective of physically fit, able-bodied, middle-class, heteronormative, cis white people unaware of their body, moving with ease through the landscape.
My own PhD research into place writing embraces my own bias, seeking specifically to introduce illness and disability into conversations about our relationship with the more-than-human world – that’s everything in the natural world aside from people.
I draw on my own personal experiences, using the creative practice of place writing as a research tool. I’ve spent time on the coast of the Romney Marshes, one of the most climate-threatened shorelines in the south of England. Here, beachcombing has become both research and ritual for me – a way to explore the entanglement of ecological fragility and chronic illness.
Louise Kenward on the beach at Hastings, East Sussex. Louise Kenward, CC BY-NC-ND
On the shoreline, I’ve explored how the vulnerability of place mirrors that of my body. The objects I find on the foreshore prompt my creative writing and evidence what lies beneath the surface, out at sea.
I draw on the work of other researchers who have learned from flotsam and jetsam. Oceanographer Curtis Ebbesmeyer modelled patterns of the ocean currents through beachcombing – plotting the arrival on land of a cargo spill of yellow rubber ducks.
Writer and naturalist, Sally Huband follows the history of objects she finds on the shore of Shetland in her book Sea Bean. Huband uses examples to rewrite narratives of coastal folklore, dismantling misogynistic interpretations of, for example, the witch and the selkie (a mythological creature that transforms from sea creature to human).
Poet, writer and professor of creative writing, Jean Sprackland writes of her time beachcombing in her book Strands. Following a year of walking the beach in the north-west of England, Sprackland highlights the interconnectedness and interdependence of all living things – something I have become acutely aware of in developing chronic illness.
The illusion of independence
The illusion of independence is something you can maintain while healthy. Sickness shows us we are all interdependent and interconnected. And we have long been told that nature is something outside of ourselves, separate to us. This nature-culture divide is something that has been implicitly challenged in my own relationship with nature.
Restoration of my sick body is as impossible as restoration of the land (and sea). I cannot, however hard I try, achieve a cure, through nature or otherwise, of my inherited connective tissue disorder. Indeed, some nature writershave argued that if I were to try, I might erase an important part of myself.
British writer Harriet Martineau (1802-76) was one of the first people to write of her observations as a patient, and to value what is learned from these experiences. Noting the value of a view of green (or blue) spaces from her sick bed, Martineau also appreciated rest and recuperation.
Research has since replicated Martineau’s findings, showing views of green spaces accelerate recovery from surgery and reduce the need for pain medication. But seeing green spaces is not a replacement for effective healthcare, disability access, or medical research – nor for time and space to rest and convalesce.
Louise Kenward collects natural treasures while walking along the foreshore. Louise Kenward, CC BY-NC-ND
Swimming, sailing, even just building a sandcastle – the ocean benefits our physical and mental wellbeing. Curious about how a strong coastal connection helps drive marine conservation, scientists are diving in to investigate the power of blue health.
This article is part of a series, Vitamin Sea, exploring how the ocean can be enhanced by our interaction with it.
While a view of trees may soothe, they do not cure. Disability highlights that nature cure is a fallacy. Through my reconnection with nature, I’ve reframed my experience of illness. I live more easily to the changing seasons than with a clock or calendar now. Periods of rest for my body, as for the land, are similarly essential for good health.
While creating the anthology, Moving Mountains: Writing Nature Through Illness and Disability, I learned that a greater regard for disabled people and the natural world are two sides of the same coin. Our sick and disabled bodies are just as worthy of care as our sick planet. The imperfect complicated places we live (and the people who live in them) are of value and worth looking after just the same.
Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?
AI has already transformed industries and the way the world works. And its development has been so rapid that it can be hard to keep up. This means that those responsible for dealing with AI’s impact on issues such as safety, privacy and ethics must be equally speedy.
But regulating such a fast-moving and complex sector is extremely difficult.
At a summit in France in February 2025, world leaders struggled to agree on how to govern AI in a way that would be “safe, secure and trustworthy”. But regulation is something that directly affects everyday lives – from the confidentiality of medical records to the security of financial transactions.
One recent example which highlights the tension between technological advancement and individual privacy is the ongoing dispute between the UK government and Apple. (The government wants the tech giant to provide access to encrypted user data stored in its cloud service, but Apple says this would be a breach of customers’ privacy.)
It’s a delicate balance for all concerned. For businesses, particularly global ones, the challenge is about navigating a fragmented regulatory landscape while staying competitive. Governments need to ensure public safety while encouraging innovation and technological progress.
That progress could be a key part of economic growth. Research suggests that AI is igniting an economic revolution – improving the performance of entire sectors.
In healthcare for example, AI diagnostics have drastically reduced costs and saved lives. In finance, razor-sharp algorithms cut risks and help businesses to rake in profits.
Logistics firms have benefited from streamlined supply chains, with delivery times and expenses slashed. In manufacturing, AI-driven automation has cranked up efficiency and cut wasteful errors.
But as AI systems become ever more deeply embedded, the risks associated with their unchecked development increase.
Data used in recruitment algorithms for instance, can unintentionally discriminate against certain groups, perpetuating social inequality. Automated credit-scoring systems can exclude people unfairly (and remove accountability).
Issues like these can erode trust and bring ethical risks.
A well-designed regulatory framework must mitigate these risks while ensuring that AI remains a tool for economic growth. Over-regulation could slow development and discourage investment, but inadequate oversight may lead to misuse or exploitation.
International intelligence
This dilemma is being treated differently across the world. The EU for example, has introduced one of the most comprehensive regulatory frameworks, prioritising transparency and accountability, especially in areas such as healthcare and employment.
While robust, this approach risks slowing innovation and increasing compliance costs for businesses.
China meanwhile uses government-led regulation, prioritising national security and economic growth. This brings major state investment, driving advances in things such as facial recognition and surveillance systems, which are used extensively in train stations, airports and public buildings.
These varying approaches demonstrate a lack of international agreement about AI. And they also pose significant challenges for businesses operating globally.
Companies must now comply with multiple, sometimes conflicting AI regulations, leading to increased compliance costs and uncertainty.
This fragmentation could slow down AI adoption as firms hesitate to invest in applications that could become non-compliant in some countries. A globally coordinated regulatory framework seems increasingly necessary to ensure fairness and promote responsible innovation without excessive constraints.
Innovation vs regulation
But again, achieving this kind of framework would not be easy. The impact of regulation on innovation is complex and involves careful trade-offs.
Transparency, while essential for accountability, could mean sharing new technology, potentially eroding competitive advantages. Strict compliance requirements, crucial in industries such as healthcare and finance, can be counterproductive where rapid development is vital.
Effective AI regulation should be dynamic, adaptive and globally harmonised, balancing ethical responsibilities with economic ambition. Companies that actively align with ethical AI standards are likely to benefit from improved consumer trust.
For now, in the absence of global agreement, the UK has chosen a flexible approach, with guidelines set by independent bodies such as the Responsible Technology Adoption Unit. This model aims to attract investment and encourage innovation by offering clarity without overly rigid constraints.
With a robust research ecosystem, world-class universities and a skilled workforce, the UK has a solid foundation for AI-driven economic growth. Continued investment in research, infrastructure and talent are essential.
The UK must also stay proactive in shaping international AI standards. For achieving effective AI governance that is safe and trustworthy, will be key to securing its future as an engine of economic and social transformation.
Jun Du is a member of the British Chamber of Commerce (BCC) Economic Advisory Council, and part of BCC Global Britain Challenge Group; the Vice Chair of the Trade and Investment Panel for the International Chambers of Commerce, and advisor to the Midlands Engine Observatory Program Board and the Business Commission West Midlands Advisory Panel. Jun is a member of the Council of Experts of the UKRI-funded Innovation & Research Caucus, and part of the OECD Innovation Review Advisory Group.
Cher Li is a member of the Council of Experts of the UKRI-funded Innovation & Research Caucus, and government Expert Peer Review Group (PRG). Her recent research projects have been funded by the ESRC and United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS).
Xingyi Liu has received funding from the Innovation & Research Caucus for his recent research.
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