Millions of people in Lagos live in slums. Slums typically have poor housing infrastructure and sanitation, and limited access to education, health facilities and clean drinking water.
These challenges make the people who live in slums vulnerable to health crises, high illiteracy rates and poor standards of living.
A central element of the city authorities’ efforts to address the issue has been to evict people. Over the past decade, more than 50,000 people have been evicted from their homes in Lagos slums.
Despite their efforts to contribute to national productivity, these low-income communities are often marginalised and denied access to basic public amenities and a dignified living environment. Instead of addressing their needs, policy and development priorities tend to focus on displacing them. Thereafter, provisions are made for affluent groups, replacing informal settlements with high-rise buildings.
Sadly, survivors of forced eviction usually move to other slum communities as they cannot afford the high cost of living in the city. This shows that forced eviction is not a solution to slum proliferation.
I argue that if Lagos wants to solve the problems faced by the city’s vast population of slum dwellers, it should focus on six things. These are:
community-led regeneration processes
communal engagement
upgrading communities without displacement
obeying court orders
inclusivity in regeneration
adequate compensation to the displaced.
This would help restore trust that the city has all its people’s interests at heart, not just those of the super rich.
Forced evictions are seen as benefiting the rich
In March 2025, a demolition exercise was carried out in the Otumara slum, displacing over 10,000 residents at short notice.
Despite a 2017 Lagos State High Court ruling which condemned forced evictions carried out without due consultation, they have continued.
Mid-April 2025, the Lagos State government revealed plans to regenerate the Otumara slum. Lagos State Urban Renewal Agency (Lasura) then met with community leaders and other stakeholders to discuss how it would be done. That step should have been taken before the demolition.
The idea behind the meeting was to ensure inclusiveness and reduce any challenge to the project. Lasura assured the community representatives of a fair hearing throughout the implementation process. They were told the benefits of the regeneration would extend to the entire community.
As a development economist who has carried out a number of studies on urban vulnerability and inclusion, I’ve found that slum dwellers don’t always trust the government. This lack of trust stems from experiences other slum dwellers have had.
Urban regeneration does not always favour slum dwellers. So government interventions are not seen as a genuine effort to improve their living conditions, but as a mechanism to displace them to make way for the elite.
Survivors of forced eviction usually move to other slum communities as they can’t afford to live in the city.
The attainment of Lagos as a “fair shared city” has been proposed by the Fabulous Urban Foundation in partnership with Heinrich Böll Foundation. These organisations advocate urban inclusiveness and community-driven initiatives. They envision Lagos as an inclusive place where everyone (irrespective of social class or status) has equitable access to amenities and decision-making processes.
The pattern of forced displacement under the guise of urban regeneration, without adequate compensation or resettlement, contradicts the principle of fairness.
Development plans in Lagos follow western ideas and keep widening the gap between the rich and the poor, as amenities are often developed to be accessible by the middle and upper classes.
To include residents of slums marked for regeneration, a more proactive approach would be:
Continuous communal engagement, to reaffirm that government and other stakeholders are committed to including all residents.
Community-led redesign and regeneration processes. Slum conditions are deplorable and dehumanising, but evicting residents to make way for the high class is unacceptable. The redesign should aim to favour the community.
Abiding by court rulings which warn against forced eviction. Lagos courts have often ruled against forced evictions, especially when carried out without due process or resettlement arrangements. The Lagos State government ought to uphold human rights by ceasing all forced eviction procedures, as they are unlawful.
Upgrading instead of displacement. Regeneration within existing settlements should be encouraged where feasible, so that livelihoods and social cohesion are not disrupted.
Regeneration should include all income groups. It should not only focus on physical infrastructure, but also social and economic issues. It would make affordable housing and basic amenities available for all income groups.
Adequate compensation. Where relocation cannot be avoided, a resettlement plan must be in place that will ensure fair treatment and avoid disruption to livelihood.
Oluwaseyi Omowunmi Popogbe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Women receive food aid in Somalia. Terrorism creates food disruptions, undermining production systems and supply routes.Tobin Jones/Wikimedia Commons
Over the last decade, there has been growing international focus on the role of food in conflict, particularly in Africa. The continent has seen an increase in jihadist terrorism in several regions.
Terrorism generates food disruptions. It undermines production systems and supply routes.
At the same time, growing food shortages intensify tensions and competition over essential resources at the margins of vulnerable societies. This increases the risk of mobilisation into violence.
We show how food is not only a driver or victim of violence. It is also central to how terrorist groups fight, govern and survive.
Terrorists use food as a tool to challenge national authorities and increase their followers. In parallel, they exploit food insecurity to control communities and confront counter-terrorism forces, pushing the state out of contested areas.
This has major implications. The use of food as a weapon worsens humanitarian conditions. It causes the displacement of people in vulnerable settings. As a result, it sets in motion dangerous mechanisms of instability that can even undermine militants themselves, reducing their resources and operational capabilities.
State responses need to address these challenges and promote more comprehensive approaches to counter terrorism.
Weaponising supplies
Since the late 2000s, Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab have engaged African security forces in a strenuous fight. Both groups have sought to overthrow local governments and establish their power.
These areas have witnessed historical frictions between the population and government authorities. Local communities have lamented socioeconomic marginalisation, shortages of essential resources and high levels of unemployment.
Both Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab have sought to capitalise on inequalities to gain appeal among aggrieved populations, seeking to replace the state in the delivery of essential resources.
Boko Haram militants have reportedly provided supplies, such as biscuits, rice and spaghetti, to marginalised villages. As a Borno State resident put it, the militants have shown “love and concern” while addressing local needs.
Al-Shabaab has resorted to similar practices to win the hearts and minds of southern Somalis and enlarge its pool of recruits. The group has supplied struggling communities with meals and goods, and promoted local agricultural activities.
In parallel to these activities, both terrorist groups have adopted more aggressive measures to counter the advance of anti-terrorism forces. They have used food denial to punish civilian insubordination and cooperation with the state, relying on starvation tactics.
Likewise, Al-Shabaab has interrupted trade routes. It has destroyed food imports to isolate southern Somali villages controlled by security forces and deprive them of popular support. During Somalia’s 2011–2012 famine, Al-Shabaab militants blocked humanitarian agencies. This was aimed at preventing the distribution of food aid to curb western influence in territories under their control.
The repercussions
The use of food as a weapon has had major repercussions in Borno State and southern Somalia. It is a primary cause of the deterioration of food security in these regions over the last 15 years.
Attacks on food resources and infrastructure have disrupted supply routes. They have pushed people to abandon their crops and pastures. This has decreased the production and availability of essential goods.
As a result, humanitarian conditions have worsened, local economies have weakened and displacement flows have intensified.
This has had detrimental effects for Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab, depriving militants of key assets to sustain their activities and attract new recruits.
The two terrorist groups have become victims of the emergencies they have helped generate. They have increasingly struggled to supply nourishment for their troops and supporters. Consequently, they have witnessed a growing number of defections motivated by unsustainable conditions.
Reports highlight increasing cases of jihadists surrendering to security forces while requesting food.
To address these challenges, Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab have intensified raids on villages, looting goods and livestock.
However, growing frictions with the population have undermined the groups’ operational capabilities, even opening up new fronts of resistance.
Boko Haram has been forced to transfer part of its resources and operations to the Lake Chad area. The group has intensified incursions to capture food in Nigeria’s neighbouring countries.
In Somalia, tensions with farming and pastoralist communities have led to the creation of militias mobilising against Al-Shabaab.
What next
The relocation of Boko Haram’s operations and the mobilisation of communities against Al-Shabaab have not eradicated the terrorist threat. However, these events further highlight food as a crucial factor shaping insurgencies.
African and international authorities need to tackle the dynamics of food weaponisation. They need to refine their approach to enhance local resilience, addressing the inequalities that insurgents exploit.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
In sport, the margin between success and failure is often measured in milliseconds. It could be a cricketer adjusting their foot positioning, a runner refining their sprint start or a footballer perfecting their passing.
This is where motion capture comes in – among the many approaches being used for athletic performance and movement analysis.
Conventional motion capture tracks a person’s movements by using sensors or reflective markers linked to cameras. This provides data that helps sport scientists analyse how to improve an athlete’s performance, personalise their training programme and prevent possible injury.
But for decades, motion capture in sport has been done using cumbersome suits and complex camera systems. These technologies offer high precision, but have remained out of reach for many because of their cost, technical demands and rigid laboratory constraints.
As sport evolves, so too must the technology that analyses it. The way we measure human movement is experiencing a major transformation. Markerless motion capture (enabled by artificial intelligence, computer vision, depth sensors and multiple-camera systems) is set to revolutionise sports performance analysis.
As a health and sports scientist with a focus on data, innovation and technology, I co-authored a study on markerless motion capture in sports and exercise. We reviewed and compared various motion capture options so that users can choose what system is best for their needs and budgets.
This matters because markerless motion capture provides a practical alternative that’s accessible, scalable and adaptable to real-world settings. It’s a shift that promises to transform how athletes train, how they move, how injuries are assessed and how coaches refine performance.
The problem with traditional motion capture
Marker-based motion capture has long been considered the gold standard for analysing movement. Various systems use optoelectronic (devices that emit or detect light) tracking. They’ve provided researchers and coaches with precise three-dimensional (3D) data on joint angles, movement efficiency and biomechanical load. But these systems come with challenges.
Firstly, the need for reflective markers placed on the body introduces variability. Even slight misplacements can compromise data accuracy.
Secondly, these systems are largely confined to laboratory environments. While they work well for controlled studies, they can’t always capture the dynamics of real-world sports performance.
Thirdly, the cost of such setups, often reaching tens of thousands of dollars, limits their use to elite teams and well-funded research labs. This financial barrier places the technology out of reach for grassroots sport, where talent development is crucial.
The rise of markerless motion capture
Markerless motion capture, driven by deep learning and computer vision, allows movement to be tracked directly from video footage, without requiring physical markers. Models such as OpenPose, TensorFlow Pose Estimate and MeTRAbs can now identify and analyse human joint positions in 3D, all from a single video feed.
This approach has profound implications. It means that coaches can capture real-time movement data from training sessions without interrupting the natural flow of play. Athletes can analyse their technique with nothing more than a smartphone camera. It opens the door for motion capture to move beyond the lab and onto the field, the court or the gym floor.
Where markerless motion capture works best
The ability to track movement in real-world environments makes markerless motion capture particularly valuable in high-speed and dynamic sports.
In football, tracking player movement during passing drills can inform tactical decisions. In sprinting, coaches can analyse stride length and ground contact time without disrupting training sessions. In baseball and cricket, batting mechanics can be assessed without requiring players to wear cumbersome tracking suits or markers.
Beyond performance analysis, the implications for injury management and rehabilitation are just as compelling.
By integrating markerless motion capture into injury rehabilitation programmes, physiotherapists can monitor movement deficiencies in real time. A player recovering from an anterior cruciate ligament injury, for example, can have their gait and knee valgus angles monitored remotely. This reduces the need for repeated clinic visits.
Barriers
Despite its potential, markerless motion capture is not without its challenges. While deep learning models are improving, they still struggle with occlusion: where body parts become temporarily hidden from view. Variations in lighting, camera angles and player body types can affect tracking accuracy too.
To improve robustness across diverse sports settings, these issues need ongoing refinement in pose estimation algorithms. (These are computer vision techniques used to locate and track key points of the body on a person in a video.)
Another key limitation is validation. Traditional motion capture systems have been extensively tested for accuracy, but markerless models are still undergoing further validation in sport-specific contexts.
Ensuring consistency and reliability will be crucial in convincing elite teams to transition away from marker-based setups.
A future without markers?
The question remains: will markerless motion capture completely disrupt and replace traditional systems? The reality is likely to be more nuanced.
While marker-based motion capture will retain its place in highly controlled research settings, markerless alternatives will dominate practical, field-based applications. The accessibility, ease of use and real-time capabilities of markerless systems make them a game-changer.
As AI models become more sophisticated and sensor technology advances, the precision of markerless systems will continue to improve. The future of motion capture lies not in replacing one method with another, but in integrating multiple approaches to create a seamless, scalable and accurate framework for movement analysis.
It’s no longer a question of whether markerless motion capture will take over, but when. And as the technology matures, the benefits for coaches, athletes and scientists alike will only continue to grow. It’s set to play an integral role in shaping the next generation of athletic performance and movement analysis.
Habib Noorbhai does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The pressure of decarbonising industrial sectors is weighing on workers.
The UK’s Labour government seeks a low-carbon and homegrown energy supply by 2030. The scale and pace of this transformation is unprecedented in the country’s power sector, and will involve building twice as much transmission infrastructure (pylons, cables, substations) in the next five years as was built over the last decade.
Much of the workforce will be drawn from the construction sector, which employs 2.3 million people. Construction forms the dominant supply chain to the 17 major infrastructure projects involved in an overhaul of the electricity grid that will connect new wind farms in the North Sea and northern Scotland to homes and businesses across Great Britain.
The workers “on the tools” who will carry out much of this transformation are struggling. The latest analysis from the Office for National Statistics suggests that the suicide risk of construction workers is three times higher than the male national average. Scholars of construction project management have identified a toxic workplace culture in the industry, citing aggressive market competition and demanding performance metrics.
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This is a problem that is largely being ignored. When planners at the National Energy System Operator assessed the UK’s capacity to build a clean power sector by 2030, they considered the absolute number of workers needed, the skills required and how employment is changing in the sector.
Their assessment failed to consider the broader implications for workforce mental health and wellbeing of such a quick and comprehensive upgrade – but it is people who are going through a rapid transition, not just infrastructure.
Construction workers already endure long hours and stress due to tight deadlines. A rapid transition to green power will substantially increase their workload, unless managed carefully.
Our report, published July 2024, looked into wellbeing and suicide in the construction industry. We concluded that the UK government, major infrastructure owners such as National Grid and their supply chain partners who provide specialist design and construction services, must work together to solve this problem.
Major infrastructure owners offer mental health services, such as confidential counselling, legal advice and financial guidance, to help their own employees manage personal or work-related issues. But most workers on the tools are not directly employed by these owners. Most are self-employed, or hired by construction firms, of which 99% are small- and medium-sized enterprises.
More than 96% of construction firms have fewer than 15 employees. Smaller suppliers of specialist trade skills, like electrical and mechanical installation, have fewer employment protections and more compressed schedules, and are even less likely to have the capacity to provide these services.
Some infrastructure owners and big construction companies extend their health and wellbeing services to these smaller suppliers. However, in an industry that is dominated by competitive tendering, which favours suppliers that keep costs low, it is no surprise that uptake has been low.
Owners of infrastructure assets like electricity pylons and substations can drive workplace improvements by adopting procurement models that prioritise suppliers that are offering measures to improve worker wellbeing.
Research from one of us (Jing Xu) and fellow project management expert Yanga Wu, has shown that the top-down prescriptive approach traditionally applied to health and safety in construction does not work for wellbeing. This requires a bottom-up approach, that makes it easy for workers to tell managers what they are struggling with and what they think would help.
The construction sector also faces a shortage of workers and skills required for the green transition. The industry training board forecasts that the industry must attract the equivalent of 50,300 extra workers a year to meet expected levels of work over the next five years.
In the power sector, however, there is the additional complication of an ageing workforce, as well as differences in employment conditions between permanent and contract staff. Key expertise is at risk of being lost with retirements. Older workers often face additional pressure, not only to meet performance targets but also to compensate for gaps in expertise, and all within a fast-paced environment.
To improve mental health and wellbeing among a diverse workforce requires engaging with workers directly and ensuring their voices are heard. This involves more than upgrading technical skills. Research to better understand how organisations can care for their workforce in the context of increasing pressures due to achieving net zero is also vital.
Further research and collaboration with infrastructure owners and major construction contractors could help manage the risks and provide valuable insights for other sectors that will need to follow suit, such as heating, transport and agriculture.
It is imperative to consider what a transition means: the technical transition of replacing outmoded technology, as well as the social transition, which prioritises not only skills but workplace mental health. Without a focus on both policy and people, clean power will not be delivered.
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US President Donald Trump’s visit to Arab states in the Middle East this week generated plenty of multibillion-dollar deals. He said more than US$1 trillion (A$1.5 trillion) worth of deals had been signed with Saudi Arabia alone, though the real total is likely much lower than that.
Qatar also placed an order for 210 Boeing aircraft, a deal worth a reported US$96 billion (A$149 billion). Trump will no doubt present these transactions as a major success for US industry.
The trip also helped counter concerns about US disengagement from the Middle East. For more than a decade, local elites have viewed Washington’s attention as shifting away from the region.
This trip was a reaffirmation of the importance of the Middle East – in particular the Gulf region – to US foreign policy. This is an important signal to send to Middle Eastern leaders who are dealing with competing interests from China and, to a lesser extent, Russia.
And from a political standpoint, Trump’s lifting of sanctions on Syria and meeting with the former rebel, now president, Ahmed al-Sharaa was very significant – both symbolically and practically.
Until recently, al-Sharaa was listed by the United States as a terrorist with a US$10 million (A$15 million) bounty on his head. However, when his forces removed dictator Bashar al-Assad from power in December, he was cautiously welcomed by many in the international community.
The US had invested considerable resources in removing Assad from power, so his fall was cause for celebration, even if it came at the hands of forces the US had deemed terrorists.
This rapid turn-around is dizzying. In practice, the removal of sanctions on Syria opens the doors to foreign investment in the reconstruction of the country following a long civil war.
It also offers an opportunity for Saudi Arabia and Qatar, as well as Turkey, to expand their influence in Syria at the expense of Iran.
For a leader who styles himself a deal-maker, these can all be considered successful outcomes from a three-day trip.
However, Trump avoided wading into the far more delicate diplomatic and political negotiations needed to end Israel’s war against Hamas in Gaza and find common ground with Iran on its nuclear program.
No solution in sight for the Palestinians
Trump skirted the ongoing tragedy in Gaza and offered no plans for a diplomatic solution to the war, which drags on with no end in sight.
The president did note his desire to see a normalisation of relations between Arab states and Israel, without acknowledging the key stumbling block.
While Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates have no love for Hamas, the Gaza war and the misery inflicted on the Palestinians have made it impossible for them to overlook the issue. They cannot simply leapfrog Gaza to normalise relations with Israel.
In his first term, Trump hoped the Palestinian issue could be pushed aside to achieve normalisation of relations between Arab states and Israel. This was partially achieved with the Abraham Accords, which saw the UAE and three other Muslim-majority nations normalise relations with Israel.
Trump no doubt believed the Israel-Hamas ceasefire agreed to just before his inauguration would stick – he promised as much during the US election campaign.
But after Israel unilaterally broke the ceasefire in March, vowing to press on with its indiscriminate bombing of Gaza, he’s learned the hard way the Palestinian question cannot easily be solved or brushed under the carpet.
The Palestinian aspiration for statehood needs to be addressed as an indispensable step towards a lasting peace and regional stability.
It was telling that Trump did not stop in Israel this week. One former Israeli diplomat says it’s a sign Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has lost his leverage with Trump.
There’s nothing that Netanyahu has that Trump wants, needs or [that he] can give him, as opposed to, say, the Saudis, the Qataris, [or] the Emiratis.
More harsh rhetoric for Iran
Trump also had no new details or initiatives to announce on the Iran nuclear talks, beyond his desire to “make a deal” and his repeat of past threats.
At least four rounds of talks have been held between Iran and the United States since early April. While both sides are positive about the prospects, the US administration seems divided on the intended outcome.
The US Middle East special envoy Steve Witkoff and Secretary of State Marco Rubio have called for the complete dismantling of Iran’s capacity to enrich uranium as a sure safeguard against the potential weaponisation of the nuclear program.
Trump himself, however, has been less categorical. Though he has called for the “total dismantlement” of Iran’s nuclear program, he has also said he’s undecided if Iran should be allowed to continue a civilian enrichment program.
Iran’s capacity to enrich uranium, albeit under international monitoring, is a red line for the authorities in Tehran – they won’t give this up.
The gap between Iran and the US appears to have widened this week following Trump’s attack on Iran as the “most destructive force” in the Middle East. The Iranian foreign minister, Abbas Araghchi called Trump’s remarks “pure deception”, and pointed to US support for Israel as the source of instability in the region.
None of this has advanced the prospects of a nuclear deal. And though his visit to Saudi Arabia, Qatar and the UAE was marked by pomp and ceremony, he’ll leave no closer to solving two protracted challenges than when he arrived.
Shahram Akbarzadeh receives funding from Australian Research Council. He is affiliated with the Middle East Council on Global Affairs, a non-profit research centre in Doha, Qatar.
Source: The Conversation – USA – By Matthew Bunn, Professor of the Practice of Energy, National Security, and Foreign Policy, Harvard Kennedy School
President Barack Obama presents the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Richard Garwin at the White House on Nov. 22, 2016.AP Photo/Andrew Harnik
Richard Garwin, who died on May 13, 2025, at the age of 97, was sometimes called “the most influential scientist you’ve never heard of.” He got his Ph.D. in physics at 21 under Enrico Fermi – a Nobel Prize winner and friend of Einstein’s – who called Garwin “the only true genius” he’d ever met.
A polymath curious about almost everything, he was one of the few people elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine for pathbreaking contributions in all of those fields. He held 47 patents and published over 500 scientific papers. A giant trove of his papers and talks can be found in the Garwin Archive at the Federation of American Scientists.
Garwin was best known for having done the engineering design for the first-ever thermonuclear explosion, turning the Teller-Ulam idea of triggering a fusion reaction with radiation pressure into a working hydrogen bomb – one with roughly 700 times the power of the Hiroshima bomb. He did that over the summer when he was 23. Over the decades that followed, he contributed to countless other military advances, including inventing key technology that enabled reconnaissance satellites.
Arms control advocate
Yet Garwin was also a longtime advocate of nuclear arms control and ultimately of nuclear disarmament. Working on nuclear deterrence and arms control, now at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government, I got to know Garwin as a tireless and effective participant in dialogues with scientists and current or former officials in Russia, China, India and elsewhere, making the case for steps to limit nuclear weapons and reduce their dangers.
The deep respect that top Russian and Chinese nuclear weapons scientists had for him was palpable – even though he was often blunt in telling them where he thought their arguments were wrong. Once, at a workshop in Beijing, after listening to the leader of China’s program to develop nuclear “breeder” reactors lay out his program, Garwin started his remarks by saying, “This is a poorly designed breeder program that will fail” – and then laying out why he thought that was the case.
Because nongovernment experts have a freedom to explore ideas that government negotiators lack, these kinds of dialogues played a key role in developing the concepts that led to nuclear arms control agreements and, I would argue, contributed to ending the Cold War. As an example, one committee team that included Garwin helped convince Chinese weapons scientists that their country had no more need for nuclear tests and should sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty – which it did soon after the discussion.
Only weeks before his death, he and I and others participated in a Zoom meeting with Russian nuclear weapons experts discussing what initial steps should be taken if U.S.-Russian political relations improved enough for them to resume discussions of nuclear restraint and risk reduction.
Garwin’s mind seemed to be interested in everything at once – and he had a wry sense of humor that could enliven a dry meeting. When I was directing a National Academies study about dealing with the plutonium from dismantled nuclear weapons after the Cold War, he would send an email with a penetrating insight on some issue in the study, followed by an equally long query about the parking arrangements for the meeting.
We put him in charge of assessing all the especially strange options for dealing with the plutonium. Once, while diagramming on a chalkboard the option of diluting the plutonium in the ocean, he drew the ship that would be doing the work and then began drawing many smaller vessels. Someone asked him what those were, and he said: “Oh, those are the Greenpeace boats.”
Science, technology and policy
Garwin’s unbelievable energies focused on three broad areas: fundamental science, new technologies and advising the government.
In fundamental science, he made major contributions to the detection and study of gravitational waves, and he helped to discover what physicists call parity violation in the weak nuclear force – a discovery that was one of the building blocks for what is now the standard model of the fundamental forces of the universe.
In new technologies, beyond weapons and satellites, he played a key role in the invention of touch screens, magnetic resonance imaging, laser printers and the GPS technology that enables us all to get directions on our cellphones. He was a researcher at IBM from 1952 to 1993.
Garwin advised the government on panels ranging from the President’s Science Advisory Committee, to the JASON panel of high-level defense advisers, to leading the State Department’s Arms Control and Nonproliferation Advisory Board (now called the International Security Advisory Board). He made major contributions to thinking about problems ranging from antisubmarine warfare to missile defense. He was a pungent critic of the “Star Wars” missile defense program launched in the Reagan administration, pointing out the wide range of ways enemies could defeat it more cheaply. His range was remarkable: He was called on to offer ideas for capping the blowout of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig and on managing the COVID-19 pandemic.
His curiosity was not limited to important matters. Once, as I was sitting next to him waiting for a meeting to start, he told me that if you took a Superball – a small, extremely elastic rubber ball – and bounced it diagonally on the floor so that it bounced up onto the bottom of the table, it would bounce back onto the same spot on the floor and back into your hand. I said I didn’t believe it for a minute – surely it would keep bouncing forward until it got to the other side of the table. He gave me an explanation I didn’t fully understand, involving energy of forward motion being converted to torque, and then converted into energy of backward motion.
When I got home, I received an express package from him containing an article he’d written in the American Journal of Physics, titled “Kinematics of an Ultraelastic Rough Ball,” with pages of equations explaining how this worked. The first figure in the paper is a stick-figure drawing of bouncing such a ball, with a footnote: “This was first demonstrated to me by L. W. Alverez using a Wham-O Super Ball.” Luis Alverez was a Nobel Prize winner in physics.
An oral history interview with Richard ‘Dick’ Garwin.
An honored life
Garwin’s brilliance was obvious to all who encountered him and won him wide recognition. In addition to election to all three national academies, he was awarded the National Medal of Science in 2002 by President George W. Bush. In 2016, President Barack Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Amid all this activity, Garwin was a family man. His marriage to his beloved wife, Lois, lasted over 70 years, until her death in 2018. They have three children, five grandchildren and one great-grandchild.
The advances Garwin contributed to have enhanced our understanding of the universe and benefited millions of people around the world. And as dark as nuclear dangers may seem today, the world is further from the nuclear brink than it would have been if Richard Garwin had never been born.
Matthew Bunn is a member of the National Academies Committee on International Security and Arms Control and a board member of the Arms Control Association. He is a member of the Academic Alliance of the United States Strategic Command and a consultant to Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
“Am I with the right person?” Most of us have probably asked ourselves this question at least once in our life. I certainly have.
To help you out, your friends might ask: “Well, do you love them?” Then you go home and the conversation goes around in your head. “Yes, I love them!” you tell yourself. But how can you be sure? Are you ready to spend your whole life with just one partner?
The stomach flip you may have just had when reading the words “your whole life” is the emotion known as anguish – the overwhelming fear you feel when confronted with a big choice. I have felt anguish myself in this situation – and the philosophy of existentialism really helped me to make sense of it.
But let’s start from the beginning: why do we feel anguish? It arises from uncertainty – in our example, from the choice between staying with the person you’re with for a lifetime, or breaking up.
Anguish is the result of a conflict between two values that we equally cherish: in this case, love and freedom. It is painful because we want both options but can only have one, as they pull us in opposite directions.
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What we like more than freedom is certainty. Suppose I happen to possess a formula that will tell you with absolute certainty what is the best course of action for every decision you have to make in your life. You would feel no more anguish, and would have no doubt that the decision you made is the best one.
Would you want this formula? If the answer is yes, you have just admitted that certainty matters more to you than freedom.
People who conceive of themselves as being independent might think they want freedom more, and refuse my formula. They may even claim that they don’t mind feeling anguish. But chances are they’re yet to be faced with the biggest decisions a human being can encounter.
These people haven’t experienced freedom to the extent that it induces real anguish. After all, anguish is a clear sign of discomfort (which can even be felt physically) – and if we didn’t want certainty, we wouldn’t feel it in the first place.
Can anguish be overcome?
The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) said that anguish can’t be overcome. But there’s reason to disagree.
First, you need to understand that anguish is an intrinsic feature of life. Accept this, and you will be a little less scared by it.
What you also have to accept is that no one has the formula I described earlier. This may seem trivial, but when a big decision looms over us, sure enough we long for certainty and this formula. There is usually no objective “ideal” course of action, though.
Of course, we may have the illusion that we made the “right” or “wrong” choice in a certain situation. But that is narrative fallacy – meaning that in reality, we simply don’t know what would have happened had we made another decision.
Then comes the hard part. It takes courage to choose what you think is right for you. You should take comfort, though, in the fact that no one usually knows what’s most right for you better than yourself.
Insightful suggestions from good friends or families just uncover information that was already within you. No one sincerely accepts other people’s values if they weren’t theirs in some way already.
Study yourself, establish what beliefs you cherish over others, and start from there. If your choices are the consequences of your deepest beliefs, they are less likely to feel wrong or uncertain. Release the demand for certainty, and you’ll have neutralised anguish.
Luca Costa receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC).
When a downburst’s winds hit the ground, they shoot out horizontally in all directions, sometimes with enough force to shatter windows and overturn vehicles.
These winds behave in complicated ways, particularly in cities, as our latest research shows. Downburst winds can deflect off tall buildings, increasing the pressure on neighboring buildings’ windows and walls. The result can blow out glass and chip off facade. Even buildings designed to survive hurricanes can suffer major damage in a downburst.
As engineers, we study downbursts with the goal of designing buildings, components such as solar panels and windows, and infrastructure such as power lines that can stand up to that powerful force. To do this, informed by field measurements, we create our own powerful downbursts using a hurricane simulator known as the Wall of Wind at Florida International University.
An illustration of how the winds of a downburst fan out in open space. In a city with tall buildings, the wind can deflect off buildings, causing damage in unexpected ways. NASA/Wikimedia Commons
What is a downburst?
Downbursts can be as destructive as tornadoes, but their winds develop in a very different way.
A downburst forms when a thunderstorm pulls cooler, heavier air down from high in the atmosphere. As this rain-cooled air rushes downward, it gains speed. Once it slams into the ground, it has nowhere to go but outward, sending strong winds in all horizontal directions.
Dust in the air shows the curling rotation of a downburst’s winds. NOAA
The wind speed in a downburst can reach over 150 miles per hour. That’s the strength of a Category 4 hurricane and strong enough to knock down trees and power lines, damage buildings and flip vehicles.
These winds also rotate, but not in the same way tornadoes do. Downburst winds are typically considered straight-line winds, but they rotate around a horizontal axis as the wind curls upward after hitting the ground. Tornadoes, in contrast, spin around a vertical axis.
Powerful storm systems known as derechos are often made up of multiple downburst clusters, each containing many smaller downbursts, sometimes called microbursts.
Recreating Houston’s downburst in a warehouse
On May 16, 2024, a derecho hit Houston with a downburst that was so strong, it blew out windows in several high-rise buildings that had been built to survive Category 4 hurricanes. The winds also pried off chunks of buildings’ facades.
Two months later, Hurricane Beryl hit Houston with similar wind speeds, yet it left minimal damage to the downtown buildings.
When a downburst hit downtown Houston on May 16, 2024, it shattered windows on some sides of buildings but not others, and not always in the line of the storm. The damage offered clues to how downbursts interact with tall buildings. Cécile Clocheret/AFP via Getty Images
To understand how a downburst like this can be so much more destructive – and what cities and building designers can do about it – we simulated both the Houston downburst winds and Hurricane Beryl’s winds in the Wall of Wind.
The test facility is equipped with a dozen jet fans, each almost as tall as the workers who run them and powerful enough to simulate a Category 5 hurricane. Our team used these fans to recreate powerful downburst winds that hit horizontally with the maximum wind speeds near ground level. Then, we put several models of buildings to the test to see how roofs, windows, facades and the structures of power lines reacted under that force.
How the Wall of Wind’s fans mimic a downburst’s horizontal force.
In the Houston derecho, a downburst hit downtown with 100 mph winds. It cracked some lower windows, likely with blowing debris, but it also caused widespread unexpected damage midway up some of the buildings.
The Chevron Building Auditorium actually suffered the most damage on a side that wasn’t directly in the line of the storm but was facing another tall building. That left some intriguing questions. It suggested that the way the buildings channel the wind may have created a strong suction that blew out windows midway up the tower. Another burning question is whether building design codes are outdated when it comes to how well their cladding can stand up to these localized winds.
Using the Wall of Wind, we were able to test those pressures on models of the Houston buildings and see how downburst winds increased the pressured on a tall building model with excessive forces near the ground level.
The ability to simulate these winds is important for improving engineers’ understanding of the differences in how downbursts and other wind events exert force on buildings. The results ultimately inform building standards to help create more resilient and better-protected communities.
Building better power lines
Big storms, like downbursts, can also take down power lines.
Power lines extend hundreds of miles between cities and states, making them more susceptible to a hit from a localized severe storm, such as a downburst. If one of the towers falls, it can cause a chain reaction, like dominoes falling one after another. That can knock out power for large numbers of people.
The derecho that hit Houston with a downburst also crumpled transmission towers in Texas. AP Photo/David J. Phillip
Low-rise and mid-rise buildings are also vulnerable to downbursts, but the effects are less well understood. Downburst winds are most intense between 10 and 300 feet above the ground, meaning the roofs and walls of some low-rises can be hit with intense horizontal wind.
Recent building codes have offered design guidelines to help ensure these buildings can withstand tornadoes. However, the way downbursts rotate in a short time around a building or a community of buildings puts pressure on the walls and the roof in different ways. Similar to straight-line winds, we expect high suction on the roof. Due to their short duration, varying wind direction and intense wind speed, downbursts may also cause excessive vibrations and varying pressure distribution on the roof components.
How microbursts form.
We’re now testing downburst damage to low- and mid-rise buildings to better understand the risks and help highlight changes that can make buildings more resilient.
As populations grow, cities are adding more buildings. At the same time, powerful storms are becoming more frequent and more intense. Understanding the effects of different types of storms will help engineers construct high-rises, low-rises and power lines that are better able to withstand extreme weather.
Amal Elawady receives funding from the National Science Foundation.
Fahim Ahmed, Mohamed Eissa, and Omar Metwally do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
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Just under a week to go till our much-anticipated Moomin event in Bradford, celebrating 80 years of Tove Jansson’s magical creatures that inspire so much affection and nostalgia in generations of readers who have found solace and delight in her Moominvalley tales.
On Friday May 23, we are hosting a film event in conjunction with Cine Spotlights at Bradford’s National Museum of Science and Media. We’ll celebrate this special anniversary with a screening of Moomins on the Riviera, followed by a Q&A with our very own panel of Conversation Moominologists.
Jansson’s first book, The Moomins and the Great Flood, was published in 1945, telling the story of a family of “Moomintrolls” who become refugees after a flood washes away their home. Written at the end of the second world war when millions of people were displaced, it reflects the struggles of rebuilding lives after disaster. After the screening, we will be discussing the theme of refugee experiences in Jansson’s work with four Conversation authors.
This is a particularly apt discussion to be having in Bradford, designated a City of Sanctuary and also the site of one of four Moomin art installations around the country. Basel Zaraa’s work is an immersive, multi-sensory installation that creates a lush world within a refugee tent, inviting audiences to imagine life beyond occupation and exile.
We’d love to see you there, so come along and join in the discussion.
The fall of a giant
First, there was the furore surrounding the revision of the language in his children’s books. Now, a play examining the extent of Roald Dahl’s anti-semitism has transferred to London’s West End. It explores the fallout from Dahl’s 1983 review of God Cried, a photographic book about Israel’s siege of West Beirut.
In the play’s blend of fact and fiction, the very real controversy arises from an interview Dahl gave to The New Statesman shortly afterwards. Many Jewish (and non-Jewish) people objected to it as strongly anti-semitic, while others saw it as justified criticism of Israel’s actions. In the play, this is meshed with a fictitious situation where Jewish staff from Dahl’s publishers visit him at home to help counteract the backlash.
But there is so much more to this fascinating play, which features an extraordinary performance from American actor John Lithgow. It engages with issues around language – how it is interpreted and how meaning is formed – as well as misogyny, racism, and the idea of genius being excused its sins. And it returns to the ever-open wound of cancel culture, and the way children’s literature has become a political hot potato.
Giant is at London’s Harold Pinter Theatre until August 2 2025.
With echoes of the theme of refugee experience in our Moomin event, Madeleine Thien’s new novel is an astonishingly original and deeply philosophical work that blends historical and speculative fiction.
Exploring issues of migration, the refugee crisis and cultural conflict, The Book of Records centres around the tale of a young girl called Lina and her ill father who flee to a strange otherworldly enclave called The Sea, where Lina feels the pain of separation from her mother and brother. She endures here for years, finding succour in three books from The Great Voyagers encyclopedia series, each of which represents a famous (real) philosopher through which she learns about exile and survival.
As our reviewer Manjeet Ridon explains, The Book of Records is “a sobering meditation on the human condition in times of crises”. A book to savour and reflect upon in a world that is distressed by the rising tide of refugees, but seems unable or unwilling to do anything about it.
Climate fact and fiction
For 70 years, David Attenborough has shaped how we see the natural world through his memorable nature documentaries. From the BBC’s groundbreaking Zoo Quest in 1954 to Life on Earth in the late 1970s and the spectacular Blue Planet in the 2000s, Attenborough, with his quietly compelling voice, has brought viewers the glory and wonder of the natural world. In doing so, he pioneered a nature documentary style that is accessible, educational and entertaining.
But now, at the age of 99, Attenborough’s latest film, Ocean, brings a change of tone: one of serious urgency as the world seemingly fails to get to grips with the climate change crisis.
As our reviewers Neil Gostling and Sam Illingworth explain, after a lifetime of gentle narration, Attenborough now speaks unflinchingly of the scale of the crisis and the need to act, combining stunning imagery with a stark assessment of the health of our oceans. From the horrific destruction wreaked by bottom trawling to plastic consumption and pollution, Attenborough doesn’t pull his punches on the moral and existential imperative to restore the balance of our oceans. As the great man puts it: “If we save the sea, we save our world.”
Ocean is on at select cinemas now
This week saw the announcement of the inaugural Climate Fiction Prize, which has been won by the Nigerian writer Abi Daré’s And So I Roar.
A poignant follow-up to her debut novel, The Girl with the Louding Voice, Daré follows the stories of Tia, an environmental activist, and Adunni, the Nigerian teenager from her debut, who has escaped child marriage and domestic abuse for shelter under Tia’s care in Lagos.
Daré masterfully explores how environmental crises collide with domestic pressures and abuse, revealing how women who exist in poverty disproportionately shoulder the burden of climate change. But it also celebrates solidarity across class, ethnicity and generational divides, standing as a powerful testament to female courage and resilience.
Mexican beauty influencer Valeria Marquez was shot dead during a TikTok livestream.@V___marquez / Instagram
Valeria Marquez, a beauty influencer, was shot dead by a man on May 14 while live streaming on TikTok at her beauty salon in the Mexican city of Guadalajara. The authorities are investigating the case as a suspected femicide, where women or girls are killed on account of their gender.
The killing of Marquez is part of a gender-based violence epidemic that has gripped Latin America for decades. The threat of such violence there is so severe that in 2020, as the world battled COVID, the UN secretary-general, António Guterres, called it a “shadow pandemic”.
The situation in Mexico is especially alarming. A 2021 report by Amnesty International found that at least ten women or girls are murdered in the country every day. The report added that the authorities have largely proved unwilling to take action to stop the killing.
On the surface, Mexico has made significant strides in improving gender equality. Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo became the first woman to be elected as Mexico’s president in 2024. There are also several female governors heading powerful Mexican provinces, and female political leadership can be found in great numbers in regional and municipal bodies.
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But despite the visible presence of women in public life, parts of Mexican society remain deeply sexist. Researchers see the prevalence of machismo, a culture that encourages an extreme sense of masculine pride, as having facilitated male dominance over women.
Femicide in Mexico became particularly rife in the 1990s. The introduction of the North American free trade agreement saw many factories producing goods for export set up near Mexico’s border with the US. These factories are known as maquiladoras.
The emergence of maquiladoras created low-skilled job opportunities. And a generation of women sought economic freedom by working in the factories. By 2006, more than half of the workers at maquiladoras were women, largely the result of their comparatively low wage demands.
While this culture shift allowed women greater economic autonomy, it also created deep resentment from some men. A spate of murders were carried out in the Mexican border city Ciudad Juárez in the 1990s, which claimed the lives of roughly 400 women.
Research has established a connection between female employment in the maquiladoras and the consequent rise in femicide in Mexican border towns. Many of the women killed in Ciudad Juárez worked in the maquiladoras.
Some people also point to the fact that the culture of male chauvinism in Mexico – and throughout Latin America more broadly – is pervasive.
When the Mexican government in 2020 established a hotline to report issues of domestic abuse and violence against women in the country, it was flooded by tens of thousands of reports. But when journalists asked the then president, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, about this figure he brushed it aside: “90% of those calls that you’re referring to are fake.”
Culture of impunity
Gender-based violence in Mexico and in large parts of Latin America does not exist solely because of the culture of extreme masculinity. It also thrives because of institutional failure to bring the perpetrators to justice.
There are robust laws and regulations to protect women against abuse in Latin America. The inter-American convention on the prevention, punishment and eradication of violence against women, signed in the Brazilian city of Belém in 1994, is a good example.
It was adopted by all countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, formalising violence against women as a violation of their human rights. However, despite the presence of this legal framework, there has not been a corresponding decline in rates of femicide.
Criminal impunity is one of the greatest hindrances to addressing the issue of femicide throughout the region. In Mexico, for example, more than 90% of all crimes go unsolved. And in Brazil, many cases of violence against women go unreported.
When they are reported, the victims and their families often face obstacles in the judicial system. Despite a 39% increase in the number of femicide cases in Brazil from 2019 to 2020, the sentencing for this crime only increased by 24%.
According to a World Bank report from 2023, there is an institutional complicity in perpetrating violence against women in Honduras. The report alleges that the country’s national police force “turn a blind eye to the soaring number of femicides”.
Similarly, according to Diana Portal, of the ombudsman’s office in Peru, femicide in the country is spiralling out of control because the negligent state machinery is incapable of addressing the issue. Consequently, criminals feel they can “rape, disappear or kill a woman without consequence”.
Latin America and the Caribbean has never had a dearth of female public figures. The region has had more than a dozen female leaders as of 2025. Argentina, Brazil and Chile have recently had female heads of state, while Peru, Honduras, Nicaragua and Mexico currently have female presidents. Mexico’s patron saint, Virgen de Guadalupe, is also a woman.
However, the presence of these high-profile figures in public life has not deterred sections of society from targeting women with violence.
Incensed by the culture of impunity and male chauvinism that perpetuates femicide in Latin America, the late Pope Francis denounced the practice. In a visit to Peru in 2018, he said violence against women cannot be treated as “normal”. “It is not right for us to look the other way and let the dignity of so many women, especially young women, be trampled upon.”
Unfortunately, despite the moral homily contained in his message, Latin America has been utterly incapable of addressing this subculture of gender violence.
Amalendu Misra is a recipient of Nuffield Foundation and British Academy fellowships.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Cassie Brummitt, Assistant Professor in Film and Television Studies, University of Nottingham
Sinners, a blues-soaked horror film set in 1930s Mississippi, was preemptively tagged by many film industry insiders as an inevitable flop. But it became a word-of-mouth sleeper hit that continues to draw huge audiences globally, weeks after its release.
On its opening weekend, premium screening formats such as in Imax cinemas accounted for 45% of the film’s ticket sales. Indeed, Imax technology has been central to the marketing of Sinners.
Trailers declared that the film was “shot with Imax cameras” and its cast and crew have discussed their experiences working with this technology in interviews. Director Ryan Coogler even takes us to film school in a ten-minute video where he talks about his love of physical film reels, explaining the differences between seeing Sinners in different aspect ratios – particularly Imax.
Imax is both a filmmaking format and a viewing technology. Imax cameras use large physical film reels and are very unwieldy due to their size, so they’re a rare filmmaking method and are usually only associated with big-budget directors such as Christopher Nolan.
This article is part of our State of the Arts series. These articles tackle the challenges of the arts and heritage industry – and celebrate the wins, too.
Sinners was shot using Imax cameras as well as an Ultra Panavision 70 camera. These cameras shoot in a completely different aspect ratio to normal films. The result is a much shallower depth of field and greater image resolution that allowed Coogler and cinematographer Autumn Durald Arkapaw to best “tell the story with the flat horizon of the Mississippi landscape.”
Imax cinema screens are specially designed to display this immersive, high-quality format. But what many people don’t know is that there are different kinds of Imax.
“True” Imax requires massive screens that use a specific aspect ratio (1:43:1) and special film projectors capable of playing the extra-large film reels. There are only two auditoriums in the UK that fit this description – the British Film Institute’s Imax in Waterloo and the Ronson Theatre Imax screen in the Science Museum – and both are in London.
The kind of Imax you’re likely to have experienced in your local cinema uses digital projectors, and often the screens will vary in size – though they are still bigger than average.
Regardless, the ongoing popularity of high-quality formats like Imax is a result of audiences increasingly seeking out the cinema for immersive, “premium” screening experiences.
The draw of Imax in offering a spectacular, high-intensity experience is a big part of why it was central to Sinners’ marketing campaign. Media academic Leora Hadas, in her book Authorship as Promotional Discourse in the Screen Industries, claims today’s movie marketing is largely about giving a film a distinct identity that makes it feel different among the overwhelming number of entertainment options we can choose from.
It makes total sense to play on Imax’s reputation for quality and spectacle in promoting a prestige film like Sinners. But I think it’s also trying to tell us something even more significant about the value of the cinema space for watching films.
The rise of streaming services has led to many changes in audience viewing habits. We can now access a wide range of content for a monthly subscription equal to the cost of a single cinema ticket.
The traditional model the film industry is built on – where a film’s success is judged by how much money it makes in cinemas – is increasingly precarious. This has caused much anxiety for film studios and cinemas alike, as more and more films are released straight to streaming platforms. Netflix CEO Ted Sarandos even said recently that making films for the cinema is an “outdated concept”.
Crucially, Imax is a technology that can only be experienced in cinemas. After Sinners opened to an explosive US$58 million (£43 million) at the box office globally, Coogler penned an open letter thanking cinema audiences, saying it was “always a film that we wanted to make for audiences in theaters … to entertain you, and move you in the way only cinema can”.
This letter makes his stance on the value of cinema very clear: “I believe in cinema. I believe in the theatrical experience. I believe it is a necessary pillar of society.”
Coogler’s efforts to promote the “theatrical experience” can encourage us all to celebrate the cinema as a space for entertainment, immersion and art. Clearly, his message has resonated: the BFI Imax screen in London has brought Sinners back due to popular demand.
But the film’s marketing strategy also reveals the underlying vulnerability of an industry fighting to survive in an era of competition from streaming services. Imax technology contributes to Sinners’ identity as a prestige film, but it also creates a narrative around the value of preserving the cinema.
Cassie Brummitt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Edward Armston-Sheret, IHR Fellow, School of Advanced Study, University of London
By July 1858, the English explorer John Hanning Speke had been in Africa for 18 months. His eyes and body were weakened by fever, and he still hadn’t found what he set out to discover – the source of the River Nile.
Squinting through the heat on July 30, however, he spotted a body of water, about four miles away, surrounded by grass and jungle. At first, he could see only a small creek, flanked by lush fertile land used for growing crops and grazing by local people. But he pressed onward, dragging a reluctant donkey through jungle and over dried-up streams.
It wasn’t until August 3 that he could comprehend the full size of the lake. After winding up a gradual hill near Mwanza, located in the north of modern-day Tanzania, Speke was finally able to see a “vast expanse” of “pale-blue” water. He gazed on the lake’s islands and could see the outline of hills in the distance. Speke was arrested by the “peaceful beauty” of the scene. At the same time he was excited – he was convinced that this lake was what he’d been looking for. He was right. The Nile is the lake’s only outlet, and the huge body of water – now known as Lake Victoria – is the world’s second-largest freshwater lake.
Lack of time and money prevented Speke from travelling any further, so he came to understand the lake’s size by speaking to local people. As he didn’t speak any African languages, such conversations had to be translated multiple times. Thankfully, he had Sidi Mubarak Bombay to help him, a key figure in the expedition, who spoke both Hindi (which Speke could understand) and Swahili.
Despite another multi-year expedition from Zanzibar travelling inland to the area, in his own lifetime, Speke struggled to prove his claims. That’s because he only saw part of the lake and was unable to follow the river that flowed out of it the whole way to the coast. He died in 1864 from self-inflicted wounds sustained during a strange shooting incident, shortly before speaking at a debate about the source of the Nile.
But at least he is remembered by history. Bombay and the hundreds of African men and women who made his journey possible have since been largely forgotten. Such people did most of the hard work of exploration, building camps, navigating, cooking food and caring for Speke when he was sick.
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They are not the only ones. As a researcher specialising in the history of geography, I’ve spent almost eight years examining Victorian and Edwardian exploration and learned about the lives and experiences of African and Asian explorers, including Bombay. They included men and women who were formerly enslaved and were either forced into the work, or paid a pittance. Some of the women were forced into sexual relationships and marriages. Many were killed or badly injured in floggings at the hands of their brutal “masters” keen to administer punishment for perceived transgressions.
Their names should be in the pantheon of exploration, but all too often they are either ignored or misrepresented within the historical record. These are just some of their stories.
The illness and suffering Speke endured left a lasting mark on his body. Though he claimed to have fully recovered, his fellow British explorer on the expedition, the eccentric Richard F. Burton, argued in his book The Lake Regions of Central Africa (1860) that Speke had sustained brain damage from sun stroke. In reality, he might have been showing the after effects of malaria and hearing loss. At one stage, a beetle had crawled into his ear, leaving him deaf for a month.
Even so, Speke led a further expedition to Africa to try to prove once and for all that he had “discovered” the source of the Nile.
He also published two books on his journeys. In the front of one, he used an etching of himself (based on a painting) standing before Lake Victoria. A copy of this painting still hangs in the headquarters of the Royal Geographical Society in South Kensington, London.
The image depicts Speke as a heroic and masculine figure. What we don’t see are the men and women who did the hard work of bringing Speke to the lake in the first place.
Sidi Mubarak Bombay was one of the most important figures within Speke’s expeditions. From Speke’s book about the expedition, which included a short biography of Bombay, we know he was born in 1820 near the modern border of Tanzania and Mozambique. His mother died when he was young, yet he remembered life in his village as one of “happy contentment” until, at the age of 12, when he was captured and enslaved by Swahili-speaking merchants.
He was then marched to the coast in chains before being sold at a slave market in Zanzibar. The man who bought him then transported him to India. Eventually, his owner died, and Bombay was freed. He returned to East Africa and enlisted in the Sultan of Zanzibar’s army. There, he met Speke and joined the East African Expedition in February 1857 and was paid five silver dollars a month.
The appointment changed Bombay’s life. The expedition was led by Burton, who had become famous for travelling to Mecca and Medina disguised as a Muslim pilgrim. Bombay became a key member of the expeditionary party.
Not only did he translate both Burton and Speke’s orders, but he also negotiated with local leaders for food, shelter and safe passage through their territory and cared for the explorers when they were sick. Bombay developed an active interest in the expedition’s work. In his book, Speke wrote that “by long practice, he has become a great geographer”.
When Speke returned to Zanzibar in 1860 for his next expedition, Bombay was one of the first men he recruited. He stayed with the expedition on its multi-year journey from Zanzibar to Cairo. Bombay went on to work for other European explorers, including Henry Morton Stanley who searched for the “lost” explorer David Livingstone, and Verney Lovett Cameron, who sought to investigate the lakes and rivers of Africa.
With Lovett Cameron, Bombay crossed equatorial Africa from coast to coast, completing much of the journey on foot. Even Victorian geographers recognised Bombay’s contribution, and he eventually received an award and pension from the Royal Geographical Society.
Anonymous labour and explorers’ violence
Bombay was a remarkable man. But Speke’s explorations also depended on many people we know far less about.
Both of Speke’s journeys to Lake Victoria were huge undertakings, involving hundreds of people. Much of the hard work was carried out by Nyamwezi porters from the central region of modern-day Tanzania. These men often worked on the pre-existing trade routes that connected the lake regions to the east African coast.
They carried the explorers’ supplies, basic equipment, trade goods and food. Explorers’ accounts often describe these people in racially offensive ways. Even so, their private letters also show their reliance on them.
An image from Speke’s book Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, illustrated by James Grant, showing ‘Speke’s faithfuls’. Wiki Commons
On his journey to Lake Victoria, Speke struggled to recruit enough porters and complained: “I cannot move independently of the natives, and now the natives are not to be got for love or money [sic]. This alone has detained me here four whole months doing nothing.”
Alongside the porters, Speke also employed Swahili-speaking men from Zanzibar. These men often had their origins in East Africa and had often been enslaved in childhood. In his published account, Speke portrayed them in terms that drew on colonial tropes about childlike Africans.
In one letter to the British consul in Zanzibar, sent on December 12 1860, he was more positive, saying that such men do “all the work and do it as an enlightened and disciplined people”. These contrasting assessments perhaps reflect Speke’s varying mood. However, the different way he wrote in public might also be part of an effort to emphasise the difficulty of the journey and his leadership qualities.
Yet explorers sometimes struggled to maintain control over the parties they led. One problem was the fact that, once away from the coast and the power of the Zanazibari state, expedition members could easily slip away. Understandably, porters were more likely to leave an expedition when conditions became bad and food scarce.
Violent punishments were also a common feature of expeditions in this region. The explorers did not invent them – such punishments were also used by Arabic or Swahili-speaking merchants travelling in the area – but they showed little hesitation in using them. In his book on their 1856-59 expedition, Burton boasted that the expedition’s porters referred to him as “the wicked white man”.
Porters referred to Richard F. Burton as ‘the wicked white man’. Hulton Archive
On Speke’s second expedition to Lake Victoria, his Scottish companion Grant described how one man “roared for mercy” when he was flogged 150 times after stealing cloth to buy food. In a letter to the Royal Geographical Society on February 17 1861, Speke wrote that this was the maximum number of lashes he would give out “for fear of mortal consequences”.
Later expeditions, such as those led by the Welsh-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley were even more violent.
During the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition (1887-89), Stanley decided to divide the party, leaving a “rear column” behind. Conditions in this group soon deteriorated, due to food shortages and disease. The column’s leader, the explorer Major Edmund Bartlott, carried out a string of violent punishments. One Sudanese porter was executed, while a Zanzibari man was flogged so many times that he died of the injuries.
Bartlott was only stopped from carrying out further acts of violence when he was killed by an African man fearful that he was about to attack his wife.
Women and girls on African expeditions
When Speke’s final expedition arrived in Cairo in 1863, having travelled from Zanzibar, the party also contained four young women who were photographed there. Their presence shows that African women often formed part of explorers’ expeditionary parties.
Sometimes the women joined voluntarily, often as the partners of porters. Others were enslaved women and girls purchased by other expedition members. One of the girls photographed in Cairo was named Kahala. Along with an older girl named Meri, she had been “given” to Speke by the queen mother of the African Kingdom of Buganda during Speke’s extended stay in the country.
Women and girls in Speke’s party in Cairo, from his Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, 1863. CC BY-SA
Speke’s relationship with Meri took a remarkable turn. In an unpublished draft of his book, now held at the National Library of Scotland, he described her as “18 years or so” and “in the prime of youth and beauty”.
The manuscript also implies that their relationship had a sexual dimension, although it’s unclear if this was consensual. On April 12 1862, Speke claimed that he spent the night “taming the silent shrew” – alluding to a play by William Shakespeare in which a husband torments his strong-willed wife into submission. Even in his highly edited published account, Speke described himself as a “henpecked husband”.
His account then described the breakdown of their relationship in early May 1862. The breakup, Speke wrote in the unpublished draft of his book, “nearly drove my judgement from me” and left him with a “nearly broken … heart.” After this, Meri apparently showed “neither love, nor attachment for me”, suggesting she had shown some before this.
Speke eventually “gave” the younger girl, Kahala, to Bomaby because “she preferred playing with dirty little children to behaving like a young lady”. At first, Kahala was unhappy about this transfer and tried to run away. But she was soon found and returned to the party. She then stayed with the expedition to Cairo and travelled with Bombay when he returned to Zanzibar.
It was not unusual for women to try to join expeditionary parties. Explorers often had concerns about the presence of unmarried women within their ranks. For instance, in his book To The Central African Lakes and Back (1881) Joseph Thomson, who led an expedition to the Lake Regions of central Africa between 1878 and 1880, reported finding a woman in the expedition’s camp who was trying to reach the coast.
On the advice of the expedition’s experienced African headman James Chuma (who, like Bombay, became involved in multiple expeditions), Thomson forced the woman to marry one of the expedition’s porters. The woman does not seem to have been happy with this arrangement. While she stayed with the expedition for a while, she slipped away when they neared the coast.
We only know the names of a small fraction of the women involved in such expeditions. Grant wrote a book on their journey that gives further details about women in the party.
In it he noted that several of the porters travelled alongside female partners who were “generally carrying a child each on their backs, a small stool … on their heads, and inveterately smoking during the march. They would prepare some savoury dish of herbs for their men on getting into camp, where they lived in bell-shaped erections made with boughs of trees”.
Such passages give us only a tantalising glimpse of these women. We’re left without a detailed knowledge of their names or lives. But we do know that they contributed to these expeditions in important ways.
Isabella Bird and Ito
More well known are the stories of the growing number of British women who became explorers in the Victorian era. Foremost among them was Isabella Bird.
Isabella Bird wearing Manchurian clothing from a journey through China. New York Public Library
Born in 1831 to an upper-middle class family and less than 5ft tall, Bird did not begin her career as an explorer until middle age. She was also disabled. At the age of 18, Bird had a “fibrous tumour” removed from the base of her spine and afterwards lived with chronic back pain. She travelled, often on horseback, to every continent of the world except Antarctica. Bird was also one of the first women admitted to the then all-male Royal Geographical Society in 1892.
Bird’s gender and disability shaped how she travelled. Unable to walk for long distances, she often rode cross-saddle, rather than the more traditionally feminine side-saddle, which she found painful. In some places, she faced specific hostility because she was a woman.
Yet, in other ways, Bird’s journeys had shared similarities with those made by men. Like them, she often depended on local people during her journeys. When she travelled through Japan in 1878, she relied on the services of an 18-year-old Japanese man named Itō Tsurukichi. He played a vital role in her journey across the country, arranging much of her travel, translating conversation with local people and explaining what she was looking at.
In Bird’s published accounts, her descriptions of Tsurukichi are often laced with racial prejudice. She often referred to him as a “boy” and was disparaging about his physical appearance. Her perspective on him did soften a little, however, as their journey continued. She was impressed by his qualities as a translator and the fact that he was continually trying to improve his linguistic skills.
Tsurukichi’s essential role was also illustrated when Bird attended a Japanese wedding to which he was not invited. She complained that it was like being “deprived of the use of one of her senses”.
Bird’s account also raises questions of who the leader of their journey through Japan was. “I am trying to manage him, because I saw that he meant to manage me,” she wrote in her book Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (1880). Bird also reported an incident where a Japanese boy thought “that Ito was a monkey-player, ie. the keeper of a monkey theatre, I a big ape, and the poles of my bed the scaffolding of the stage!”
Bird viewed the child’s misunderstanding as amusing, but it does suggest that some outsiders thought Tsurukichi was leading the party. He was clearly a skilled guide and translator, and he went on to become one of the foremost tour guides in Japan, taking numerous western travellers around the country.
Like Burton and Speke, Bird often depended on guides on her journeys. Sometimes, she led much larger groups. In such situations, others cooked her food, packed her tent, and translated conversations with local people.
When she travelled in China in the 1890s, Bird was carried across much of the country in an open chair on the shoulders of three separate groups of chair-bearers. She often didn’t record the names of the men who did such work and only described their labour in quite general terms – though she did photograph some of them and her chair.
However little men like Bombay and Tsurukichi are remembered, it is at least possible to recover their names.
Scott and Antarctica – exploration in an unpopulated land
In the early 20th century, the exploration of Antarctica was a thoroughly masculine affair. Some women did apply to join Antarctic expeditions, such as those led by Ernest Shackleton, but their applications were turned down. Antarctic expeditions were also less ethnically diverse than those in the Arctic. In the north, explorers often relied on the skills and labour of Indigenous people. There were also Black explorers, including Matthew Henson, an African-American man who claimed to be one of the first men to stand on the North Pole.
Antarctica presented a unique challenge: it is unpopulated, and when British explorers made their first attempts to explore its interior in the early 20th century, they had no idea what to expect.
In contrast to diverse expeditions elsewhere in the world, Antarctic expeditions were comparatively homogenous undertakings. British expeditions, led by Robert Falcon Scott and Shackleton, mostly employed white men from within the British empire. Sledging journeys in Antarctica were quite egalitarian compared with expeditions in Africa and Asia. Sledging often required upper and middle-class officers and scientists to work collaboratively with working class sailors, who often pulled sledges forward by sheer force of muscle.
Shackleton, Scott and Edward Wilson before their march south during the Discovery expedition in 1902. Sledges visible in the background. National Library of New Zealand
On the British National Antarctic Expedition, Scott completed a long sledge journey to the Polar Plateau with stoker William Lashly and petty officer Edgar Evans. The men cooked, ate, slept and laboured together. Scott, an officer, found the experience revealing, learning much about the working-class men’s experiences in the Royal Navy. Antarctic explorers were more willing to acknowledge the manual labour that made their expeditions possible than Burton, Speke or Bird, partly because this work was done by white men.
Some working-class sailors – such as Edgar Evans, Tom Crean, or William Lashly – did achieve a certain degree of celebrity. But others figures are overlooked. On Scott’s expedition he employed two men from within the Russian empire to help care for and train the expedition’s ponies and huskies: Dmitrii Girev and Anton Omelchenko. Apsley Cherry-Garrard, the expedition’s assistant zoologist, noted that they “were brought originally to look after the ponies and dogs on their way from Siberia to New Zealand. But they proved such good fellows and so useful that we were very glad to take them on the strength of the landing party”.
Girev, from the far east of Russia specialised in looking after the expedition’s Siberian huskies, while Omelchenko, born in Ukraine, specialised in caring for the ponies who would haul Scott’s supplies towards the South Pole. They therefore played a vital role in the expedition. In their accounts, Scott and Cherry-Garrard referred to these adult men using the infantilising term “boys” – thereby stripping them of their status as full and equal members of the expeditionary party.
Even among the British expedition members, there were still significant disparities in how labour on polar expeditions was rewarded or reported. Working-class men, mostly sailors drawn from the Royal Navy, did much of the hard, unglamorous work. They were also paid much less than officers and scientists.
On Scott’s two Antarctic expeditions, much of the day-to-day work at base camp – such as cooking, cleaning, and collecting ice to melt into drinking water – was carried out by working-class sailors.
On his final expedition, the explorers spent the winter in a small hut on Ross Island. One man, Thomas Clissold, worked as the expedition’s cook. Frederick Hooper, a steward who joined the shore party, swept the floor in the morning, set the table, washed crockery and generally tidied things. “I think it is a good thing that in these matters the officers need not wait on themselves,” Scott commented in his diary. “It gives long unbroken days of scientific work and must, therefore, be an economy of brain in the long run.”
He had adopted a similar approach on his first expedition, which left some sailors frustrated. “We don’t have any idea of what has been done in the scientific work, as they don’t give us any information,” James Duncan, a Scottish shipwright on the British National Antarctic Expedition (1901-1904) complained in his diary. “It’s rather hard on the lower deck hands.”
Even memorials to Antarctic explorers perpetuate many of the heroic myths of exploration. If you walk around London today, you might stumble on the statue of Scott in Waterloo Place or one of Shackleton outside the headquarters of the Royal Geographical Society in South Kensington. Such statues embody much of what we often get wrong about exploration, depicting explorers as solitary. Expeditions were collective projects, and many of the people involved haven’t had their contributions fully recognised.
In many parts of the world, expeditions were large, diverse undertakings. Yet many of the people who did most of the work have been forgotten. My research seeks to put them in the spotlight and recover something of their lives and experiences.
Expeditions are extreme situations in which human bodies are pushed to (and sometimes beyond) their limits. Because of this, they vividly illustrate the various ways humans depend on each other – for care, food, shelter, transport and companionship. Today, human societies are more complex and interdependent than ever. Though often in less extreme or dramatic ways, like explorers, we all depend on other people for survival.
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Edward Armston-Sheret has received funding from the Institute of Historical Research (via the Alan Pearsall Fellowship in Naval and Maritime History), the Royal Historical Society, The Royal Geographical Society, and the Arts and Humanities Research Council (via the Techne Doctoral Training Partnership).
A viral social media post suggested a large fries and large coke was an effective migraine treatmentKrakenimages.com/Shutterstock
Whether it’s one or two coffees to get us going in the morning or a bar of chocolate after a stressful day, many of us self-medicate when we’re tired, stressed or sad. But when we have a headache, most of us head straight for the painkillers.
Lately, though, a viral hack has been making the rounds: that a large Coca-Cola and fries can stop a migraine in its tracks.
And oddly enough, it’s not total nonsense.
The caffeine in Coca-Cola acts as a vasoconstrictor, meaning it narrows blood vessels. This helps counteract the dilation of blood vessels that occurs during a migraine – a key trigger for pain.
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When vessels widen, they can press on and activate nearby pain-sensitive nerves, especially those of the trigeminal system, which carries sensory information about touch, pain and temperature from the head and face to the brain, leading to that familiar throbbing headache. That’s why caffeine is often included in over-the-counter headache medications.
Meanwhile, the sugar and salt in Coke and fries may help restore balance to blood sugar and electrolytes, both of which can be disrupted during a migraine attack.
But to really understand why this combo might work, we need to unpack what’s actually happening during a migraine.
The four stages of migraine
Migraines can be sparked by a wide range of factors: hormonal shifts, stress, skipped meals, certain foods, even changes in the weather or visual overstimulation. But, once one begins, it follows a specific pathway that makes it distinct from other types of headaches.
A migraine is no ordinary headache. It’s a full-body experience with four distinct stages – two of which occur before the pain even hits. That means there’s a window in which to stop the episode in its tracks, and many migraineurs (people who suffer from migraines) already self-medicate by doing just that.
Prodrome
Prodrome is the first stage, which can begin hours or even days before the headache. You might feel tired, irritable, or unusually low in mood. Most people who get migraines are surprisingly bad at spotting this phase, even though it’s the best time to intervene.
During prodrome, people often crave certain things. Many migraineurs report yawning more, which helps regulate dopamine, or seeking out hugs and affection, which boost serotonin. Others might drink ice water to calm their autonomic nervous system. Others still might reach for the large Coke and fries.
These responses aren’t random. All of these are unconscious attempts to rebalance the neurological systems that go haywire during a migraine. Irregular serotonin, dopamine and nervous system function are all known contributors to migraines.
And that brings us to arguably the ultimate migraine hack: chocolate. While it’s sometimes blamed as a trigger, chocolate is rich in compounds that help raise serotonin levels.
Because low serotonin is a known factor in migraine onset, a craving for chocolate might be your brain’s way of correcting a chemical imbalance. For some people, a bit of chocolate in the early stages may help ward off an attack.
Aura
Aura comes after the prodrome phase, and it’s when some people experience visual disturbances like flashing lights, or odd sensations like pins and needles. About 80% of migraine sufferers don’t experience the aura phase, but the same wave-like changes happen inside their brains.
These symptoms come from a burst of electrical activity in the brain that is subsequently suppressed, which alters blood flow and causes the constriction of blood vessels. Whether a person notices these effects depends on the structure and sensitivity of their cerebral cortex.
The brain relies on a stable supply of blood for nutrients and oxygen — but direct contact with blood is toxic to brain tissue. That’s why we have the blood-brain barrier, a filter that protects brain cells.
The pain comes next. The body takes vascular changes in the brain seriously and headache pain is one way it warns us that something could be wrong. Any disruption to blood flow – too little or too much – is potentially dangerous. A blocked vessel can lead to ischemic stroke, while a ruptured vessel causes hemorrhagic stroke.
The pain phase begins when earlier blood vessel constriction gives way to a rebound dilation. This sudden widening of vessels activates pain receptors — and voilà: the familiar, throbbing pain of migraine – and it can be debilitating.
For many people who suffer from migraines, once the pain hits, food is the last thing on their mind. That’s why many turn to triptan medications instead of fast food, which rebalance serotonin and histamine (another regulator of blood flow) once the migraine is underway.
Postdrome
Postdrome kicks in after the worst of the head pain subsides. This migraine hangover is more than just feeling worn out, though – it’s a distinct phase of a migraine attack. Known medically as the postdrome phase, it follows up to 80% of migraine attacks and can bring symptoms strikingly similar to a traditional hangover: nausea, fatigue, dehydration, body aches and mental fog.
For many people, this lingering phase can be just as disruptive as the migraine itself, making recovery a drawn-out and exhausting process. It can take days or even weeks to transition through all four phases of a migraine.
Still, prevention is better than cure and recognising the early signs of a migraine, then responding in ways that support the brain’s neurobiology, can make a huge difference.
Migraines are complex, personal and frustratingly unpredictable. But knowledge is power. And while no single solution works for everyone, recognising the prodrome phase and supporting your nervous system before pain sets in may be your best shot at heading off an attack.
Whether it’s recognising the craving for chocolate as a biological warning sign, sipping iced water, getting a hug, or yes – even reaching for a Coke and fries – these small interventions have roots in brain science. They reflect our body’s efforts to protect itself. Developing your personal treatments based on how your brain responds can help you stay one step ahead of the pain.
Amanda Ellison does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Lichens on stone, those “still explosions” as the great American poet Elizabeth Bishop named them, remain unseen to most, which is remarkable when you consider how commonplace they are. It seems these ecologically and culturally significant whatever-they-ares unfairly fall victim to something akin to plant blindness, a known phenomenon and tendency of people to overlook plants, which many of us – when we first encounter lichens – identify them as, even though that’s not what they are at all.
Part of the problem is that they’re not studied in schools because they’re awkward outsiders and are not perceived to fit in with the objectives of the science curriculum. So I was surprised to see lichens leap into the public imagination following the Just Stop Oil protest at Stonehenge at the summer solstice in June, 2024.
Just Stop Oil protesters spray an orange substance onto Stonehenge stones. Just Stop Oil
Much of the outrage seemed to be in reaction to a quote from one of the protesters about the stones being inert: “It’s time for us to think about what our civilisation will leave behind – what is our legacy? Standing inert for generations works well for stones – not climate policy.” Inert? “Well, what about the rare lichens growing on them?”, was the response from some people, seeing them as separate from the stone, and for others more important even.
English Heritage, the current custodians of Stonehenge, talked about the stones as being “testament to the desire of people – from prehistoric times to today – to connect with nature, the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, as well as crucially, each other”. And this very publication printed a response suggesting we should care more about the effects of climate change on our cultural heritage rather than the inconsequential actions of the Just Stop Oil protesters.
What’s more, a senior druid said he sympathised with the group’s message but was critical of their actions at the sacred site, warning against additional measures to protect the stones, given the summer solstice is the only day in the year that people can “connect with the stones and have a proper relationship”.
Relationship – a word that is often only reserved for connections between people, or people and animals, or animals and other animals, not people and what would otherwise be something seen – in western eyes at least – as abiotic, or non-living, lifeless, inert stones. Or are they?
For a lichenologist specialising in saxicolous (or stone) lichens, what’s particularly interesting to me is what lichens have to say about stone and its inertness, its lifelessness, the sweeping “abiotic” label that western thinking assigns to it.
This is because lichens are transforming our understanding of stone in both ecological and cultural contexts, and this could have major implications not only for the conservation of our cultural heritage, but also the broader field of conservation and how we understand and relate to the natural world.
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What exactly is a lichen?
To start with, how we see lichens themselves is changing. Trying to agree on a definition of lichens that pushes them into one of science’s neat little cubby holes has proved as difficult as trying to distinguish stone from rock. A symbiotic association between a fungus (a mycobiont) and a photosynthetic partner, usually an alga or a cyanobacterium (a photobiont), is where we’d got to. And to accommodate our Linnaean classification system of living things we’ve treated them as we would a single species, naming them after the fungus.
But the reality is, whereas all those other living things are assigned a single species name to sit at the end of a single branch of Darwin’s tree of life, lichens recline over several, perhaps many branches, giving us the side-eye. They simply don’t fit. This has led some researchers to consider alternative ways of seeing them, including recently defining them as complex ecosystems due to the presence of additional microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria. This sea change has been challenged, however, and the debate about “lichenhood” looks like it will go on as it has done since the mid-1860s.
More than their biology
The notion that lichens are ecosystems, or perhaps become ecosystems, really appeals to my geographer sensibilities. It frees the lichen from species-scale thinking yet doesn’t overshadow the symbiosis that also defines certain relationships involved. What we see and define as a lichen, can in fact become more complex over time.
One of the arguments against the idea that they are ecosystems is that it would require us to include the mineral, soil or plant substratum that the lichen grows on. As scientist William Sanders writes, “For most biologists, a lichen removed from its substratum is still a lichen.”
I spend a lot of time looking at stone-dwelling lichens through a lens and under a microscope, and to me the co-habitational interplay between the stone, the lichen’s hyphae (or thread-like anchors) and its thallus (or main body) are intimate and dynamic, and ultimately a relationship that defines the lichen itself.
Lichens become more than their biology, mainly because they are in situ for such an extensive length of time and even often incorporate their substrate into their main body. Depending on the environment, individuals can colonise rock and stone for decades, centuries, thousands of years even; it’s been proposed that some of the oldest found in northern Alaska are in the range of 10-11,500 years old. And so, they blur the boundary between the biotic (living) and the abiotic (non-living), which occur on a continuum when you escape a species-scale view.
Verrucaria baldensis is an endolithic lichen that embeds in stone. At the surface of the stone, it can leave pits where its fruiting bodies detach. I call it the Moon Lichen because that’s exactly what it looks like up close; the surface of the Moon, the pits becoming craters. But when you look at it from above, or even in cross-section to see how it embeds in the stone, you’d be forgiven for thinking it had vanished, or was actually mainly stone. The relationship between the biology and the geology becomes so close that there seems good reason to consider the two together when observing it.
Verrucaria baldensis, a lichen that submerges in stone and is reminiscent of the Moon’s surface. Nicholas Carter, CC BY
The moment stone is quarried or exposed in some other way, colonisation of its surface begins, by cyanobacteria, algae and so on. This means that when that stone finds its way into a wall, a building, a monument or sculpture somewhere it has already started transforming, metamorphosing into something that acts alive. And so, at the surface, the stone is taking in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and replacing it with oxygen, contributing to our net zero aspirations.
And when a lichen forms on it, in time, that stone becomes part of the lichen, and so contributing to the biodiversity of the site. We don’t see it, or think about it even, but it’s happening. We just need to start seeing stone differently, dynamically, more than the mineral. For a Unesco World Heritage Site like Blenheim Palace, where I’ve been conducting lichen surveys and whose vision is partly to enhance the ecological value of the site, seeing stone in this way is highly beneficial.
Arguably, much of how we define something depends on our relationship with it and how we choose to see it. How we value the living in relation to the non-living plays out in how we define lichens; we need to acknowledge the importance and value of both. In doing so, we are altering our perception of stone and our relationship with it. For there to be effective conservation, we need to value stone and other non-living entities because of the close relationships involved.
The reverse situation also occurs. In the field of heritage conservation, stone, the abiotic, relocated by humans, is often valued over and above the biotic, for example lichens, which can be found colonising and occupying it. We tend to want to preserve rather than conserve stone when it comes to cultural monuments and structures, so huge sums of money are spent on cleaning historic buildings and sculptures, including on the use of biocides, many of which can be dangerous for human health and the environment.
Metaphors for resistance and resilience
It’s when we start to understand the cultural contributions as well as the ecological and conservation benefits of lichens to heritage that we start to lean towards and come up with more effective nature-based solutions in relation to the deterioration of stonework.
After all, lichens occur in our folklore, and have stories to tell, and so bring a flavour of intangible cultural heritage, as well as sometimes protecting stone surfaces from other deteriorative agents. What’s interesting here is that heritage scientists have often talked about stone in human terms, when diagnosing decay for example. So stone forms blisters and has a memory even, storing past traumas related to environmental pollution.
And lichens are also influencing a cultural and artistic re-evaluation of stone, such that contemporary artists and writers are exploring the symbiotic relationships lichens have with stone, viewing them as metaphors for resistance, resilience and interconnection. In this way, lichens highlight stone’s living narrative, bridging biology and geology in relation to the human condition.
There’s an interesting parallel to draw here in terms of life defined by relationships. A developing theme in anthropology focuses on the intra-actions among humans and the mineral world. In her article on this, Nadia Breda’s ethnography discovers a European form of animism that “attributed subjectivity, intentionality, ability and agency to non-humans, revealing an interspecies network of relationships hidden by the western naturalistic worldview”.
In the company of the Piave, an Italian river where water and stones were described by old gatherers as living beings, Breda signposts an anthropology of life where “stones are living in this moving world of humans, stones and water” in a world where “life is not an intrinsic property of objects but a condition of being dependent on the context, and vitality is not a property of isolated individuals, but of the total field or relationships in which they are interacting.”
By observing lichens and listening to voices outside of a western perspective, we see stone as something more than lifeless, a way of reconnecting with the natural world – which we desperately need.
We form relationships and emotional attachments to the biological world with relative ease, but we need to nurture these connections with physical elements too, and not just when they hold cultural or symbolic significance. As such, we need to advocate for soil integrity, for example, as much as for saving endangered species. Ethical debates such as rights and conservation should not just focus on the biological, and what we see as the physical must be spoken about in terms of moral obligations.
Stone is significant to lichens as well as many human cultures, representing more than inert matter, carrying meaning, history and spiritual significance. Focusing too rigidly on a binary distinction obscures the integrated nature of ecosystems and diminishes these broader environmental and human connections, which can offer valuable insights into sustainability and environmental stewardship. This is less about making distinctions, but building more connections.
Nicholas Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
The pressure of decarbonising industrial sectors is weighing on workers.
The UK’s Labour government seeks a low-carbon and homegrown energy supply by 2030. The scale and pace of this transformation is unprecedented in the country’s power sector, and will involve building twice as much transmission infrastructure (pylons, cables, substations) in the next five years as was built over the last decade.
Much of the workforce will be drawn from the construction sector, which employs 2.3 million people. Construction forms the dominant supply chain to the 17 major infrastructure projects involved in an overhaul of the electricity grid that will connect new wind farms in the North Sea and northern Scotland to homes and businesses across Great Britain.
The workers “on the tools” who will carry out much of this transformation are struggling. The latest analysis from the Office for National Statistics suggests that the suicide risk of construction workers is three times higher than the male national average. Scholars of construction project management have identified a toxic workplace culture in the industry, citing aggressive market competition and demanding performance metrics.
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This is a problem that is largely being ignored. When planners at the National Energy System Operator assessed the UK’s capacity to build a clean power sector by 2030, they considered the absolute number of workers needed, the skills required and how employment is changing in the sector.
Their assessment failed to consider the broader implications for workforce mental health and wellbeing of such a quick and comprehensive upgrade – but it is people who are going through a rapid transition, not just infrastructure.
Construction workers already endure long hours and stress due to tight deadlines. A rapid transition to green power will substantially increase their workload, unless managed carefully.
Our report, published July 2024, looked into wellbeing and suicide in the construction industry. We concluded that the UK government, major infrastructure owners such as National Grid and their supply chain partners who provide specialist design and construction services, must work together to solve this problem.
Major infrastructure owners offer mental health services, such as confidential counselling, legal advice and financial guidance, to help their own employees manage personal or work-related issues. But most workers on the tools are not directly employed by these owners. Most are self-employed, or hired by construction firms, of which 99% are small- and medium-sized enterprises.
More than 96% of construction firms have fewer than 15 employees. Smaller suppliers of specialist trade skills, like electrical and mechanical installation, have fewer employment protections and more compressed schedules, and are even less likely to have the capacity to provide these services.
Some infrastructure owners and big construction companies extend their health and wellbeing services to these smaller suppliers. However, in an industry that is dominated by competitive tendering, which favours suppliers that keep costs low, it is no surprise that uptake has been low.
Owners of infrastructure assets like electricity pylons and substations can drive workplace improvements by adopting procurement models that prioritise suppliers that are offering measures to improve worker wellbeing.
Research from one of us (Jing Xu) and fellow project management expert Yanga Wu, has shown that the top-down prescriptive approach traditionally applied to health and safety in construction does not work for wellbeing. This requires a bottom-up approach, that makes it easy for workers to tell managers what they are struggling with and what they think would help.
The construction sector also faces a shortage of workers and skills required for the green transition. The industry training board forecasts that the industry must attract the equivalent of 50,300 extra workers a year to meet expected levels of work over the next five years.
In the power sector, however, there is the additional complication of an ageing workforce, as well as differences in employment conditions between permanent and contract staff. Key expertise is at risk of being lost with retirements. Older workers often face additional pressure, not only to meet performance targets but also to compensate for gaps in expertise, and all within a fast-paced environment.
To improve mental health and wellbeing among a diverse workforce requires engaging with workers directly and ensuring their voices are heard. This involves more than upgrading technical skills. Research to better understand how organisations can care for their workforce in the context of increasing pressures due to achieving net zero is also vital.
Further research and collaboration with infrastructure owners and major construction contractors could help manage the risks and provide valuable insights for other sectors that will need to follow suit, such as heating, transport and agriculture.
It is imperative to consider what a transition means: the technical transition of replacing outmoded technology, as well as the social transition, which prioritises not only skills but workplace mental health. Without a focus on both policy and people, clean power will not be delivered.
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Oestrogen and progesterone are the primary sex hormones in females, playing powerful roles throughout life – from puberty and periods to pregnancy and eventually menopause.
During adolescence, these hormones surge, kick-starting the menstrual cycle. In adulthood, they fluctuate month to month, driving ovulation and menstruation. But between the ages of 45 and 55, their levels start to decline.
This signals the beginning of perimenopause – the transitional phase leading to menopause, which is officially marked when a woman has gone 12 consecutive months without a period. After that, hormone levels settle at a lower, steady baseline, ushering in the postmenopausal stage.
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Oestrogen and progesterone don’t just affect the reproductive system, they also act directly on the brain. Both hormones can cross the blood-brain barrier and influence neural function. Oestrogen tends to excite brain activity, enhancing alertness and mood, while progesterone is more calming and balancing.
When these hormone levels begin to fluctuate during perimenopause, they can disrupt many of the systems they regulate, especially in the brain. Common symptoms like hot flushes, night sweats, memory problems, mood swings, poor sleep and even depression are not just nuisances. They’re signs that the central nervous system is being affected.
These neurological symptoms can have a domino effect on physical and mental health. In fact, research shows thatwomen are more likely than men to experience frailty and cognitive decline in later life – a trend that may be linked to the hormonal shifts around menopause.
That’s why it’s so important to approach menopause as a whole-body, whole-brain experience and not just a reproductive event.
Experiences of menopause
Along with colleagues from Nottingham Trent and Northumbria universities, I conducted research that explored how women describe their personal experiences of menopause. The findings were eye opening.
When asked to sum up menopause in one word, participants offered responses like:
“Anxiety.” “Horrific.” “Bizarre.” “Depression.” Many expressed frustration at the lack of clear, trustworthy information and a feeling of isolation. One woman said: “I don’t know what my body is capable of doing from one minute to the next … the pain, it’s just horrible.”
Another described overwhelming fatigue: “I haven’t got the energy I had when I was young.” While others reported profound mental health struggles: “I had this thing where I hated myself”, “I would have a rage within me, which wasn’t me normally”, “I had depressive episodes and was very poorly.” One participant reported that she was “feeling overwhelmed and panicked about doing anything, even leaving the house”.
These stories reveal the reality behind the statistics – menopause can be deeply destabilising, and for some women, life altering.
The more symptoms women experience, the more their quality of life can be affected. But there is hope. Research shows that higher levels of physical activity are linked to fewer and less severe menopausal symptoms.
That’s why our research team has taken our findings beyond the lab. Through public events and workshops, we’re helping women learn about how nutrition, brain health, and exercise can support them through the menopausal transition. And the impact goes beyond biology: gaining knowledge has been shown to boost self-confidence and help women feel more in control and less alone.
There’s still much to learn about the full impact of menopause on the brain and body, but one thing is clear: supporting women through this major life stage is not optional – it’s essential.
By continuing to share knowledge, break taboos and support one another, we can change the story of menopause from one of confusion and isolation to one of empowerment, understanding and resilience.
Jessica Piasecki receives funding from The Royal Society and MyAge. She is affiliated with Power Group — National Institute of Women’s Health and Performance and Relative Energy .Deficiency-Sport (RED-S) interest group
The line between entertainment and advertising is increasingly blurred thanks to social media. People no longer just consume content, they experience it – laughing, sharing and commenting. And brands have caught on.
The days when people sat through a 30-second TV ad because they had no choice are long gone. Now they can quickly swipe past anything that feels too much like selling.
Instead of posting directly to consumers, brands increasingly engage with each other. They crack jokes, offer praise and even poke fun at competitors. Brands are becoming more human in their interactions – especially with each other.
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Brand “banter” doesn’t feel like an ad (even though it has a commercial purpose). It can feel unscripted, human and weirdly fun, cutting through in a way traditional advertising can’t.
Our research shows that consumers are more likely to notice and engage with these interactions. The content feels less like marketing and more like shared digital culture. It can feel unexpected and entertaining, and invites audiences into a “moment”.
Humour, especially online, is a powerful emotional hook. It invites people to share the content – great news if you have a product to sell. In a noisy digital world where brands compete for eyeballs, humour helps to get people’s attention.
But it also fosters emotional connection, and can make brands feel human-like to consumers. When we see brands behaving playfully or being especially complimentary towards each other, our research shows they are more like to engage and remember them. It turns passive scrolling into active participation.
A good example is the Duolingo Death meme. The brand’s chaotic cartoon owl faked its death on Instagram and the result was viral engagement.
The post was liked by more than 2.1 million people. Other brands such as Walmart, FedEx, Kellogg’s and Five Guys joined in. Even pop star Dua Lipa paid tribute on X. What felt like spontaneous chaos was actually a smart, strategic move that tapped into meme culture, humour and community trends.
The same can be said for the caterpillar cake battle between supermarket Aldi and Marks & Spencer. This public brand-to-brand feud over their respective cakes exploded into a public spectacle and legal action from M&S. Despite being locked in a trademark row, Aldi and M&S ribbed each other with witty social media posts.
But rather than harming either brand, the playful roasting humanised them, drawing attention and affection from consumers.
In on the joke
Our research also found that when brands talk to each other, (rather than just talking at consumers), it can be an effective marketing device. These exchanges are more engaging than traditional brand-to-consumer posts because they feel unexpected and unscripted.
We found that people don’t just enjoy the interactions. They walk away with more positive feelings towards the brand and are more likely to buy from them. These interactions break the “fourth wall” of advertising and let consumers feel like they’ve been let in on a joke.
Humour often works by violating expectations. But whether consumers find something funny or awkward depends on how we interpret that violation. And there’s a catch: it needs to feel benign rather than malign.
American fast food chain Wendy’s is renowned for its sharp-witted social media presence, often engaging in playful jabs at competitors like McDonald’s. But one post, in response to McDonald’s promise to use fresh beef in all of its quarter pounders, apparently went too far.
Wendy’s posted: “So you’ll still use frozen beef in MOST of your burgers in ALL of your restaurants? Asking for a friend.” While many customers found the remark humorous, others viewed it as mean-spirited and unprofessional.
So banter – when it verges on being aggressive – can risk alienating consumers who prefer respectful brand interactions.
Of course, the line between clever and cringe-worthy is thin. When brands try too hard to be funny or provocative, they risk being perceived as inauthentic, self-serving or out-of-touch. Worse, they can alienate audiences or trivialise serious issues. The performative nature of online branding means that missteps are both public and memorable.
And brands must be self-aware. It’s crucial that they understand their brand purpose and identity, their “cool” factor, and who their real customers are.
As brands seek their place in a saturated landscape, characterised by constant content overload and fleeting consumer attention, these moments of humour and light-hearted engagement can serve as relief valves. But they’re also strategic tools. Brands are using playfulness to build emotional connection, cultural relevance and visibility in an overcrowded digital space.
So the next time a brand makes you laugh, pause and consider: Was it just a joke, or was it also a very clever move?
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
A 115-year-old Surrey woman named Ethel Caterham has officially been handed the title of the oldest living human alive.
Many people reading this news may wonder what Caterham’s secret is.
While it isn’t usually a good idea to take health and longevity advice from supercentenarians (as they’re often the exception rather than the rule), there are some lifestyle pointers that we can take from research on groups of long-lived people that might help us increase our chances of living a longer life.
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1. Physical activity
Physical activity is good for you – who knew? Research shows that people who are more physically active each day tend to live longer, healthier lives. One study found that going from no physical activity to about 75 minutes per week of brisk walking increased life expectancy by about two years.
But perhaps less well known is just how bad inactivity is for your health and longevity. It’s a tad difficult to explain, but the positive effects of exercise are actually different from the negative effects of inactivity. That means that you can have a positive influence on your health by being both more active and avoiding being inactive.
Yet as good as structured exercise is for you, it can’t by itself offset the harms of inactivity and sitting all day. Research even shows that being sedentary is associated with higher risk of premature death from any cause.
If you want to live longer, you should try to avoid sitting for long periods of time if possible. Practical tips for this include standing up every 30 minutes, going to see someone in the office instead of calling or emailing them and standing on public transport during commuting. This, plus the aim to do about 30 minutes moderate exercise most days will help maximise your odds of a long, healthy life.
2. Eat your veggies
The advice many kids dread: eat your vegetables if you want to live a long time.
A recent study that followed around 100,000 people over a 30 year period found that people who made it to 70 years of age in good health (meaning they had no chronic diseases) typically ate more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and legumes, and fewer trans-fats, red or processed meats, fried foods and sugary foods. Importantly, this study doesn’t say that you must be a vegan, or never eat red meats – it only identifies trends within diets associated with healthy ageing.
When and how much you eat may also play a role when it comes to ageing. Research on caloric restriction and intermittent fasting in animals has shown both can increase lifespan. Our preliminary work in humans has also shown that following a fasting diet for three weeks can cause similar, positive metabolic shifts that match what we’ve seen in animals that will live longer. However, larger studies over longer time-frames are needed to establish effects on healthspan and lifespan in humans.
In a study of about 500,000 British people, irregular sleep patterns were associated with a 50% higher risk of early death compared to those with regular sleep patterns. Shift workers showed higher risk for strokes, and nurses who worked rotating shifts for decades were less healthy and had earlier deaths at retirement compared to nurses who didn’t work shifts.
While this data suggests that good quality, regular sleep is important for good health, how much sleep you need and when you should go to bed appears to be highly individualistic. This makes giving population-wide recommendations difficult – which is why the NHS recommends adults get between 7-9 hours sleep.
Possibly linked is the effect of social connections. Those that live more socially active lives also tend to live longer. In fact, people over 65 who are socially active daily are three times more likely to live for five more years compared to those that almost never engage in social activities.
It’s a common finding that strong social networks appear to enhance longevity. This may be due to the way social connections help us alleviate stressors in our lives.
The role of genetics
While there are many lifestyle habits we can change, one thing we can’t control when it comes to our lifespans is genetics. Some research suggests that naturally-occurring mutations in genes associated with longevity are more common in long-lived people.
Although it’s hard to tease out the role of genetics versus lifestyle when it comes to lifespan, current predictions suggest that longevity is between 20-40% related to genetics.
But good genetics aren’t everything. Although Ethel Caterham has made it to the remarkable age of 115 – and one of her sisters lived to be 104 – Caterham’s two daughters pre-deceased her at 71 and 83 years of age.
And even if you do win the genetic jackpot and follow a good lifestyle, you would still be very lucky to make it to Caterham’s grand old age of 115. Cells mutate, clots form, biological luck runs out. Still, if you want to maximise your odds of living longer and staying as healthy as possible, aim to be more physically active each day, eat a good diet, get a good night’s sleep and keep stress levels low.
Bradley Elliott receives funding from the Physiological Society, the British Society for Research on Ageing, the Altitude Centre, and private philanthropic individuals, and has consulted for industry and government on longevity research. He is on the Board of Trustees of the British Society for Research on Ageing.
When we think about the future of food, it’s unlikely that crickets, meal worms or grasshoppers come to mind. But believe it or not, insects might just be one of the most promising answers to two big global problems: feeding a growing (and ageing) population and fighting climate change.
As the world’s population heads towards 10 billion by 2050, we’re going to need a lot more food – and especially more protein.
In Ireland, where our research was based, this matters even more because our population is ageing. Older adults need more protein to stay healthy and independent as they age, but often they don’t eat enough of it.
At the same time, we also have to take care of the planet. Producing traditional protein sources like beef, pork and chicken uses up a lot of land, water and energy – and creates a lot of greenhouse gases.
So, where do insects fit in?
Insects are packed with high-quality protein. They also contain good fats, vitamins and minerals like iron and zinc. Some species are just as nutritious, if not more so, than chicken or beef.
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Even better, they’re much more sustainable. Insects need very little space, water, or food to grow, and they produce far fewer greenhouse gas emissions. For example, crickets need 12 times less feed than cattle to produce the same amount of protein.
This makes them a great option for countries like Ireland which wants to cut down on its environmental impact while still providing healthy food for everyone, including older adults who need extra protein to prevent muscle loss and frailty.
Despite all the good things about insect protein, most people in Ireland aren’t exactly rushing out to eat a cricket sandwich. I led a research project, conducted by Sarah Mae Crosse, Aoife Finlay and Sarah Dooley, which looked at what Irish adults think about eating insects. We found that while some people are open to the idea, many still say “no thanks”.
The main reasons? Disgust, fear of the unknown and not knowing how to cook or prepare them. People also worry about taste and texture. One participant said: “It’s just weird – it makes my stomach turn,” while another admitted they’d be okay with it “as long as I don’t see any legs sticking out”.
Increasing appeal
The way insects are served also makes a big difference. People are much more willing to try insect protein when it’s ground up into a powder and added to foods they already like, like protein bars, pasta, bread, or burgers. In this form, it’s just another ingredient and it doesn’t look like a bug anymore.
Another big factor is education. When people learn about how insect protein can help the environment and support healthy ageing, they’re more likely to give it a go. In our student-led focus groups, some participants changed their minds after hearing about the benefits. “I didn’t realise it was so high in protein or that it’s good for the planet,” one said. “I’d try it now, especially if it tasted okay.”
Getting more people on board with insect protein isn’t just about making it tasty – it’s also about trust. Clear rules and food safety standards from the government can help people feel more confident about trying something new. Plus, supermarkets and food producers need to make these products easy to find and affordable.
Schools, colleges and community groups can play a big role too. Cooking demos, taste tests and education campaigns can make insect protein seem less weird and more like a smart, forward thinking choice. As more people try these foods and share their experiences, the idea of eating insects could go from gross to normal.
It might take time, but insects could become an important part of the Irish diet. They’re good for our health, especially as we get older, and they’re good for the planet too. The key is helping people understand the benefits, get over the “ick” factor and find ways to enjoy them in everyday meals.
With the right mix of science, education and smart marketing, we might all be munching on insect powered protein foods before long.
Catherine Norton receives funding from government funding, research council grants and industry.
With thanks to Sarah Mae Crosse, Aoife Finlay and Sarah Dooley, undergraduate students at the University of Limerick, who conducted this research.
In 1954, the Finnish artist Tove Jansson was commissioned by the Evening News in London to draw comic strips about the Moomintrolls. The strip was syndicated by hundreds of newspapers, introducing the Moomins to an international audience and marking a dramatic turning point in her career.
Between 1954 and 1959, Tove Jansson drew 21 comics, some in collaboration with her brother Lars Jansson, who continued to draw the comic strip until 1975.
The success of the Moomin in the Evening News brought Tove Jansson economic security and helped her with the mortgage of her studio in Helsinki. However, over time, the assignment also became a burden on her creative work – a time-consuming and demanding obligation.
Perhaps because of this personal conflict, the comics often explore themes such as the struggle of artistic creation, the role of the artist and the value of art. Jansson had previously created humorous and satirical commentaries on the art world in various artists’ magazines in Finland, but here she places the Moomin at the heart of the creative process.
Unlike the novels and picture books, the Moomin comic strips were created for adults and can be described as satire. Jansson uses the compact format to comment on society, including the art world. The growing conflict in her own life, between the Moomintrolls and her artwork, is brought into focus in the comic strips.
This is part of a series of articles celebrating the 80th anniversary of the Moomins. Want to celebrate their birthday with us? Join The Conversation and a group of experts on May 23 in Bradford for a screening of Moomins on the Riviera and a discussion of the refugee experience in Tove Jansson’s work. Click here for more information and tickets.
The theme of the purpose of art and artistic creation is playfully introduced in one of the first comic strips, Moomin and the Brigands. Here Moomin and his friend Sniff embark on a quest for fortune. They engage in several schemes, including capturing rare creatures and selling them to the zoo, marketing magic rejuvenation potions and creating modern art.
While visiting a Hemulen (a really uptight counterpart to the Moomintrolls who love rules), Moomin and Sniff accidentally break several precious items in her home. Among the broken objects is a large statue of Rebecca at the Well, which falls from its pedestal and shatters. Rebecca at the Well is a classic biblical motif, which often portrays a model of feminine virtue, symbolising divine guidance and exemplifying ideals of hospitality and moral character.
The friends awkwardly attempt to reassemble the statue by gluing it together. The result is a strangely angular and expressive piece of art, referencing fragmented cubist portraits. Cubism, which emerged around 1907 to 1908, aimed to represent reality in a radically new way by bringing together subjects and figures, resulting in objects that appear fragmented and abstracted.
Sniff immediately sees the potential of the new Rebecca. “She’s more modern now,” he exclaims joyfully. The friends carry the statue to an enthusiastic art dealer who sells it for £500 in his gallery.
The episode with the deconstructed Rebecca is, of course, a funny caricature of the trend-sensitive art market. But the shattered statue with its intricate shapes was also a commentary on the debates about the “incomprehensible” and “obscure” nature of modernist art in Nordic countries during the time.
The destruction of the Rebecca can also be seen as an act of iconoclasm – the breaking of icons or monuments – or rather, a parody of it. While usually associated with vandalism, here, the iconoclastic act leads to the creation of something new. This expresses a desire for renewal and a liberation from restrictive conventions. It is, however, worth noting that Rebecca retains her symbol of virtue – the water jug – even after this pivotal encounter.
Drawing on the work of French philosopher and anthropologist Bruno Latour, iconoclasm can be understood as both destructive and constructive – an ambiguity that also applies to Jansson’s interpretation of the motif.
Later in the story, the money offered by the modernist Rebecca lures Moomin to the field of the arts. For a brief moment, he assumes the role of a painter and wholeheartedly embodies the romanticised ideal of the poor, misunderstood artist.
Moomin dons a Rembrandtian black velvet beret, but despite this, appears lost and bewildered in his new role, muttering: “I only want to live in peace and plant potatoes and dream!”
In a scene of self-parodying metafiction, he is blinded by his oversized beret and ends up tumbling down a cliff, abruptly ending his artistic career.
Tove Jansson’s Moomin comic strips for the Evening News use satire to explore artistic creation, the role of the artist, and the art world.
Through Moomintroll’s and Sniff’s pursuit of fame and fortune via the accidental modernist deconstruction of Rebecca, Jansson satirises romantic notions of the artist, the commercialisation of art and the professions surrounding artistic production. These themes are deeply connected to Jansson’s own experiences as an artist and author, constantly balancing between various professional and artistic demands, between children’s books, public obligations and painting.
Elina Druker is employed as a professor and researcher at Stockholm University, Sweden.
The UK government has unveiled plans to reform the migration system, making it more restrictive with the aim of reducing the level of net migration into Britain.
Immigration provides economic opportunities for a country – for example, migration enables employers to recruit the workers they need. This is particularly true in essential but low-paid sectors such as social care and agriculture. Reducing net migration may mean trading off some of these economic benefits.
The UK government’s official economic forecaster, the Office for Budget Responsibility, tends to assume that higher net migration has a positive impact on economic growth and tax receipts.
We have just published new research that partly explains this decision. We conducted a survey of 103 MPs and 1,757 local councillors, and compared the attitudes of British politicians with those of members of the public.
We polled Westminster MPs on what they think about the level of migration into the UK. The timing of this polling matched up exactly with a public poll YouGov had conducted. This enabled us to draw a direct comparison between the two groups.
We found that broadly, MPs and the public are in agreement on this issue. Both clearly tend to think immigration has been too high in recent years. However, the public (70% support) are even more inclined towards this view than MPs (just under 60% support), and less likely than MPs to think that immigration levels have been “about right” in recent years.
Despite these results, the long-term trend on public attitudes to migration has moved in a more liberal direction. Over decades, the British public has generally become more positive about the benefits of migration.
However, this is complicated by the fact that anti-immigration voters are often more exercised about the issue than pro-immigration voters. Anti-immigration voters are also more efficiently distributed across a large number of constituencies, whereas more liberal pro-immigration voters are often more concentrated in seats in larger cities.
Reform UK’s performance in the recent local elections demonstrates the electoral potency of anti-immigration sentiment among some voters.
Ipsos also recently published some interesting polling of MPs and the public. This showed that when it comes to issues such as increased housebuilding and immigration, MPs tended to be more willing than the public to prioritise boosting economic growth over other objectives (such as limiting immigration). Although, MPs were more willing than the public to prioritise protecting the environment over economic growth.
When Labour was elected into government in 2024, Keir Starmer emphasised the party’s focus on boosting growth. A whole tranche of new Labour MPs were elected with an apparent commitment to this, and many subsequently joined the Labour Growth Group caucus.
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Such a shift in the composition of who is in the Westminster parliament has enabled substantial policy shifts in a pro-growth direction. For example, some recent Conservative prime ministers would arguably have liked to implement the type of reforms in the current government’s planning and infrastructure bill, but were unable to principally because of resistance among their backbench MPs.
However, as we’ve explained, polling shows that the public is not always as willing as the current crop of MPs to sign up to things just because they might boost economic growth. There is also a substantial section of the population who would like to see immigration reduced.
The government’s new white paper setting out its proposed immigration reforms eschews a simple relationship between higher immigration and greater economic prosperity. It emphasises the difference between boosting overall GDP and the size of the labour market versus productivity and per capita GDP, and criticises an economic model reliant on record levels of net migration into the UK.
Nonetheless, it appears that Labour has diluted its attempt to govern in a purely pro-growth manner in order to respond to public opinion.
Mitya Pearson the University of Warwick. He has received funding from the British Academy and Leverhulme Trust.
David Jeffery does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Keir Starmer became the first British prime minister to visit Albania since the two countries established diplomatic relations in 1921. During the visit, he announced that the UK plans to set up “return hubs” for asylum seekers whose claims are rejected by the UK.
Just days after announcing his plans to reduce legal migration to the UK, this move on irregular migration is more evidence of the prime minister’s concern about losing voters to anti-immigration Reform UK.
Before meeting with Albanian prime minister Edi Rama to sign a strategic partnership agreement between the two countries, Starmer said that the UK has begun formal talks with several countries to set up return migration hubs to send asylum seekers abroad. The specifics are yet to be announced, but it has been reported that these would probably be in the western Balkans.
The plan has drawn comparison to the Conservative government’s Rwanda scheme, but is different in a number of ways.
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Under the Rwanda scheme, people who arrived in the UK illegally would have been sent straight to Rwanda where their asylum claims would be processed. If accepted, they’d be offered asylum in Rwanda, not the UK. Starmer cancelled the plan in one of his first moves as prime minister.
With Labour’s plan, people would only be sent to another country if their asylum claim is rejected and they’ve exhausted all legal options to stay in the UK. The rationale is that they would not be able to disappear into the informal economy and illegal actives in the UK after an asylum claim was not successful.
The goal of both plans is to act as a deterrent to irregular migration, and to cut the high cost of hosting undocumented migrants and asylum seekers in the UK, which has become a major political issue.
The return hubs plan also has the approval of the UN refugee agency, which condemned the legality of and the practically of the Rwanda scheme.
However, it has already hit a roadblock. Albania was one of the UK’s preferred options for a return migration hub. But during a joint press conference with Starmer, Rama said thatAlbania will not take part in such a scheme.
This is probably because a similar set-up with Italy has so far been unworkable, legally and politically .
Under the Italy-Albania migration agreement signed in November 2023, Albania is meant to play host to two Italian processing centres, where they planned to send asylum seekers intercepted at sea. But after facing numerous legal challenges, Italy is instead using them as repatriation facilities to hold those whose claims have already been rejected while they await deportation.
Partnership with Albania
The UK has maintained a successful returns arrangement with Albania, set up by the last government.
In 2022, Albanians accounted for over one-third (around 12,500) of all small boat entries, more than any other country. Arrivals from Albania have dropped by 95% in the last three years. And the number of Albanians returned to the country has more than doubled in the last two years, with 5,294 Albanians returning in 2024.
The two countries set up a joint task force to tackle organised crime networks that were facilitating the illegal entry of Albanian nationals to the UK. Starmer began his visit at the Port of Durres, where British and Albanian law enforcement officials are stationed as part of the Joint Migration Task Force with Albania.
Starmer indicated that the task force will be expanded to include the other western Balkan countries. This is because the western Balkan route is one of the main migratory paths into Europe. It was estimated that in 2023, 100,000 people used this route to come to the UK.
The visit, which comes days after Albania’s parliamentary election, shines a light on some of the political tensions between the UK and Albania.
The Albanian diaspora community in the UK in recent years has expressed feeling stigmatised and targeted due to inflammatory rhetoric of the last government.
Suella Braverman, the former home secretary, called Albanians “criminals” while claiming migrants were “invading” the UK. Robert Jenrick, the former immigration minister, posted videos telling police to find Albanians and “lock them up” and “deport” them.
In 2024, Albanians made up the highest percentage (13%) of foreign nationals in UK prisons, with over 1,272 people in custody. Along with Albanians, Polish (9%), Romanian (7%), Irish (6%) and Jamaican (4%) nationals account for around 12% of the overall prison population.
Rama, who just won the election, was fully aware of voters’ sentiment towards the UK. There have also been protests in the country against the current migration arrangement with Italy. Any new agreement, particularly with the UK, could be politically damaging for the Albanian government.
This visit could be a turning point for mending relations. Starmer declared that his government is fully committed to strengthening ties with Albania, and signed a strategic partnership agreement, with a focus defence and security.
Starmer and Rama both said that the partnership will expand at the UK-Western Balkan Summit that Starmer will host in London in autumn, and it will include increasing trade, economics investment, education and managing migration.
Andi Hoxhaj does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
An attempt to make assisted dying legal in England in Wales continues to make its way through parliament, with MPs currently scheduled to have a final vote on the bill in June.
The bill has sparked both passionate support and strong opposition, raising vital questions: how would such a law work in practice? Who would deliver it? And what would it cost?
While much attention has focused mostly on the ethics of assisted dying, the government’s recently published impact assessment looks at the practical side and it deserves closer attention.
Of course, we shouldn’t base a decision about life and death solely on financial or logistical grounds. But if assisted dying is to become part of the law in England and Wales, we need to understand how it would work in reality. The report highlights a number of key challenges:
1. The medication question
The assessment draws mainly on data from 11 other jurisdictions, especially Oregon, where assisted dying has been legal for years. It found that the drugs used can lead to prolonged and unpredictable deaths, in part due to inconsistent drug availability.
However, the report doesn’t compare this to Switzerland, where assisted dying must be self-administered and is tightly regulated. There, a single barbiturate is typically used, leading to death within two to ten minutes depending on whether it’s taken orally or via injection. This raises questions about what kind of medications would be used in the UK and how reliably they would work.
2. Opt-outs: who will deliver the service?
Experience from countries like Canada shows that most doctors opt out of providing assisted dying. In Canada, over 5,000 assisted deaths were carried out by just 80 people. Similarly, in the US and New Zealand, entire institutions – especially palliative care services – have opted out.
Kim Leadbeater, the MP sponsoring the bill, has confirmed that it would not oblige hospices to participate. While this protects individual conscience, it may leave patients struggling to find willing clinicians or being discharged home to die.
3. Can the NHS cope with a new service?
The bill assumes the NHS would be responsible for delivering assisted dying. But is the system ready?
Switzerland uses volunteer doctors outside the healthcare system, which may be more sustainable. In the UK, oversight is expected to come from a panel including a senior judge or lawyer, a psychiatrist and a social worker.
However, the Royal College of Psychiatrists (RCP) has raised serious concerns, both about the role psychiatrists would play and whether there are enough professionals to fulfil that role. The RCP currently opposes the bill.
4. Funding: a two-tier system?
The impact assessment suggests assisted dying would be free at the point of delivery. Yet palliative care – the alternative end-of-life support – often receives less than 40% government funding, relying heavily on charity.
Could this create a two-tier system, where assisted dying is fully funded while palliative care remains under resourced?
5. Legal costs and challenges
If passed, the bill could trigger human rights challenges, particularly around mental capacity and access. Legal experts suggest several grounds on which it might be contested and these cases would need to be defended, incurring additional costs.
Families might also seek judicial review of a panel’s decision to permit a request for assisted dying. And public protests outside clinics or hospitals offering the service could require increased policing and security – all of which have financial and social implications.
This bill tackles one of the most morally sensitive issues in society. But if it is to succeed, and be implemented safely, it must be built on more than good intentions.
The government’s impact assessment lays out the many practical hurdles: medication protocols, workforce readiness, conscientious objection, legal protections, and funding disparities. These aren’t technicalities. They’re the framework that would determine whether assisted dying is accessible, safe and ethically delivered.
As the bill progresses, the debate must move beyond principle alone. The future of this legislation – and its real world impact – will depend on how well we address these deeply human, and deeply complex, practicalities.
Suzanne Ost has previously received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council and the British Academy for research that she has conducted.
Nancy Preston receives funding from Horizon Europe but not for her work on assisted dying. She is affiliated with European Association of Palliative Care where she Co-Chairs the Task Force on the role of palliative care professionals in supporting patients and families considering assisted dying.
A hug from a friend. A squeeze of the hand. A steady arm around your shoulders. Many of us are taught to think of touch as comforting – an instinctive way to offer or receive comfort and express a sense of connection.
But comfort is not always the outcome.
For some, that same gesture can feel intrusive – even jarring. In moments of stress or vulnerability, even a caring touch can miss the mark, leaving someone feeling unseen, misunderstood or more alone than before.
As a social-health psychologist, I study how close relationships shape emotional well-being, especially through the ways people give and receive support. Decades of research in psychology and neuroscience show that touch is more than just a physical act – it’s a form of communication. Whether it lands as comforting or off-putting depends on timing, context and the emotional safety of the underlying relationship.
When touch lands well
When touch provides comfort, it’s because it communicates safety, understanding and care. It works best when grounded in clarity, respect and emotional timing.
Trust also matters. Comfort comes most naturally when we feel safe – when we know that someone truly sees us and wants to ease our distress. A hug from a friend after you’ve shared bad news feels good not just because of the gesture itself but because of what it says: “I’m here, and you’re not alone.”
Sitting quietly next to a partner or child after they’ve had a hard day at school and offering them a steady hand and gentle presence can do more than any question or explanation. It provides a moment of connection that says: “You’re safe. I’ve got you.”
Over time, attuned touch can do more than provide comfort in the moment – it can strengthen relationships, regulate our stress responses and promote well-being. Recent research highlights how affectionate touch may even support better sleep by reducing stress and increasing feelings of emotional safety. These benefits aren’t limited to romantic or parent-child relationships; many people also find comfort through physical closeness with trusted friends or pets. When it’s offered with care and sensitivity to the moment, touch can build connection, both immediately and over time.
But even in safe relationships, consent and receptivity are essential. Comforting touch should be honest and clear – not ambiguous, not tentative and never assumed. Simple gestures, such as asking “Would a hug help right now?” or offering “It’s OK if you’d rather not” can turn an awkward moment into one that feels safe and seen. And respecting someone’s “no” is just as important as offering touch in the first place. Hearing and honoring that boundary isn’t rejection; it’s attunement.
Ultimately, the most comforting touch communicates care for the person receiving it, not just the intentions of the person offering it. Small shifts in awareness such as paying attention to body language, asking first or simply waiting for the right moment can be the difference between discomfort and feeling understood. When offered with clarity, warmth and respect, physical closeness can do more than just comfort: It can restore.
A pediatrician discusses the importance of teaching kids consent from an early age, including for hugs.
Why touch sometimes backfires
If touch is a form of communication, it can miscommunicate too. A gesture meant to convey comfort might instead land as pressure, intrusion or something you want to escape.
Sometimes the issue is timing. One person reaches out with genuine care, while the other just needs space. A partner’s hand on your shoulder mid-argument might feel more like control than comfort. A hug meant to soothe can instead feel jarring, coming across as emotionally tone-deaf or misaligned.
Research shows that support is effective only when it’s grounded in mutual understanding and appreciation. If the gesture isn’t wanted or the moment is wrong, even well-intended touch can do more harm than good.
People’s attachment styles also shape how they respond to touch. People with avoidant tendencies often find physical closeness intrusive and may pull away from even small gestures. In contrast, people with more anxious attachment styles may crave the closeness of touch but remain on high alert, wondering whether it’s sincere, if it’s enough or if it will still be there in the future.
In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic led many people to renegotiate their comfort with touch and spatial boundaries. For some of us, keeping our distance became comforting – a new kind of safety that we’re not ready to give up just yet. And a handshake or hug might not feel like a return to normal – it might feel like crossing a boundary you didn’t know you’d built.
Ultimately, what makes touch comforting isn’t just the gesture – it’s emotional attunement: how well it fits the moment, the relationship and the person on the receiving end. When that alignment is off, even the most well-meaning touch can fall flat or make things worse.
Like any form of care, how touch is received depends on how, when and why it’s offered. If you want your touch to feel truly supportive, here are a few ways to stay attuned:
Who is this for? Ask yourself: Is this really for them or mostly for me? The most comforting touch comes from meeting another person’s need, not your own.
Notice what’s unspoken. Physical cues – leaning in, pausing or pulling away – can sometimes tell us more than words. Discomfort doesn’t always need to be spoken to be understood.
Offer choice.A simple question like “Would a hug help right now?” is more comforting than reaching out before checking in. And hearing a respectful no doesn’t disrupt connection – it builds trust.
We don’t have to give up on hugs, hand squeezes or reassuring pats. But comfort doesn’t automatically follow from physical closeness – it comes from the understanding and care behind it.
Brian N. Chin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
In today’s digital world, people routinely turn to the internet for health or medical information. In addition to actively searching online, they often come across health-related information on social media or receive it through emails or messages from family or friends.
It can be tempting to share such messages with loved ones – often with the best of intentions.
Although there is a fire hose of health-related content online, not all of it is factual. In fact, much of it is inaccurate or misleading, raising a serious health communication problem: Fake health information – whether shared unknowingly and innocently, or deliberately to mislead or cause harm – can be far more captivating than accurate information.
This makes it difficult for people to know which sources to trust and which content is worthy of sharing.
The allure of fake health information
Fake health information can take many forms. For example, it may be misleading content that distorts facts to frame an issue or individual in a certain context. Or it may be based on false connections, where headlines, visuals or captions don’t align with the content. Despite this variation, such content often shares a few common characteristics that make it seem believable and more shareable than facts.
Another marker of fake health information is that it presents ideas that are simply too good to be true. There is something appealingly counterintuitive in certain types of fake health information that can make people feel they have access to valuable or exclusive knowledge that others may not know. For example, a claim such as “chocolate helps you lose weight” can be especially appealing because it offers a sense of permission to indulge and taps into a simple, feel-good solution to a complex problem. Such information often spreads faster because it sounds both surprising and hopeful, validating what some people want to believe.
In a study on vaccine hesitancy published in 2020, my colleagues and I found that controversial headlines in news reports that go viral before national vaccination campaigns can discourage parents from getting their children vaccinated. These headlines seem to reveal sensational and secret information that can falsely boost the message’s credibility.
The pull to share
The internet has created fertile ground for spreading fake health information. Professional-looking websites and social media posts with misleading headlines can lure people into clicking or quickly sharing, which drives more and more readers to the falsehood. People tend to share information they believe is relevant to them or their social circles.
In 2019, an article with the false headline “Ginger is 10,000x more effective at killing cancer than chemo” was shared more than 800,000 times on Facebook. The article contained several factors that make people feel an urgency to react and share without checking the facts: compelling visuals, emotional stories, misleading graphs, quotes from experts with omitted context and outdated content that is recirculated.
Visual cues like the logos of reputable organizations or photos of people wearing white medical coats add credibility to these posts. This kind of content is highly shareable, often reaching far more people than scientifically accurate studies that may lack eye-catching headlines or visuals, easy-to-understand words or dramatic storylines.
How to combat the spread of fake health information
In today’s era of information overload in which anyone can create and share content, being able to distinguish between credible and misleading health information before sharing is more important than ever. Researchers and public health organizations have outlined several strategies to help people make better-informed decisions.
Whether health care consumers come across health information on social media, in an email or through a messaging app, here are three reliable ways to verify its accuracy and credibility before sharing:
Evaluate the source’s credibility. A quick way to assess a website’s trustworthiness is to check its “About Us” page. This section usually explains who is behind the content, their mission and their credentials. Also, search the name of the author. Do they have recognized expertise or affiliations with credible institutions? Reliable websites often have domains ending in .gov or .edu, indicating government or educational institutions. Finally, check the publication date. Information on the internet keeps circulating for years and may not be the most accurate or relevant in the present context.
If you’re still unsure, don’t share. If you’re still uncertain about the accuracy of a claim, it’s better to keep it to yourself. Forwarding unverified information can unintentionally contribute to the spread of misinformation and potentially cause harm, especially when it comes to health.
Questioning dubious claims and sharing only verified information not only protects against unsafe behaviors and panic, but it also helps curb the spread of fake health information. At a time when misinformation can spread faster than a virus, taking a moment to pause and fact-check can make a big difference.
Angshuman K. Kashyap does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Miles Taylor, center, a Homeland Security official during the first Trump administration, wrote an op-ed in September 2018 that criticized Trump.AP Photo/Alex Brandon
During President Donald Trump’s first three months in office, his administration has targeted dozens of former officials who criticized him or opposed his agenda.
On their face, such moves appear to be a coordinated campaign of personal retribution. But as political sciencescholars who study the origins of elected strongmen, we believe Trump’s use of the Justice Department to attack former officials who stood up to him isn’t just about revenge. It also deters current officials from defying Trump.
More than revenge
Like all presidents, Trump needs allies who will faithfully implement his policy agenda. For most presidents, this means surrounding themselves with longtime friends.
But to carry out a power grab, incumbent leaders also need allies who will stay silent or, better yet, endorse their attempts to consolidate control.
In El Salvador, for example, President Nayib Bukele’s legislative allies gave him free rein in 2023 to run for president a second time despite constitutional provisions banning reelection.
An audio recording of President Donald Trump talking to Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger is played in Washington, D.C., on Oct, 13, 2022. Alex Wong/Getty Images
Notably, both men first won political office on their own, without an endorsement from Trump. This means they were less reliant on Trump for access to political power. Therefore, they were more likely to prioritize their loyalty to the Constitution over their loyalty to Trump.
Attacks enforce loyalty
In authoritarian contexts, loyalty is not an intrinsic quality. Authoritarian leaders do not necessarily select those with whom they have long work experience that leads to mutual trust.
For instance, during Rafael Trujillo’s dictatorship in the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961, the head of intelligence, Johnny Abbes, was plucked from obscurity in Mexico and in 1958 began to lead the dictator’s repression machine.
Instead, the challenge for authoritarian leaders is finding people to do their bidding. And the best people for this job are those who never would have earned their position in politics without the leader’s influence.
Unqualified appointees who can’t ascend to political power based on their merits have little choice but to stick with the leader. These people appear loyal, but only because their careers are tied to the leader staying in power.
A litany of failed politicians
This logic, where people with few career prospects outside of the leader express the most loyalty, explains why Trump has appointed a number of political candidates who have lost elections.
For appointees who can’t win elections, the only shot at power is steadfast alignment with the leader. This dynamic, in turn, provides a strong incentive for these officials to remain loyal, even when the leader breaks the law or orders them to do the same.
When leaders place loyalists in charge of federal law enforcement, attempts to conjure votes for the president out of thin air or to seize ballot boxes in opposition districts are more likely to succeed.
The Trump administration’s attacks on former Republican officials who criticized him, such as Taylor and Krebs, reinforces this dynamic. It sends a signal of future punishment to current Justice Department officials should they speak out against Trump or refuse to carry out illegal orders.
Attacks also target opposition power
Of course, the Trump administration’s political attacks haven’t stopped with officials in his previous administration who have fallen out of favor.
As research on authoritarian regimes shows, the goal of attacking independent institutions this way is to sap their capacity to resist the incumbent government’s attempts to cheat in future elections.
After Hungary’s leader, Viktor Orban, had rewritten his country’s Constitution and reined in the courts, he changed the electoral rules to ensure he won reelection in 2022. Along the way, Orban forced an entire university into exile after failing to subdue it.
In these ways, incumbents’ acts of retribution toward people and organizations that oppose their agenda reinforce loyalty among their allies. They also undermine and weaken their opponents and ultimately facilitate incumbents’ efforts to consolidate power.
Joe Wright has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, and private foundations.
Erica Frantz has received funding from the US Agency for International Development and private foundations.
Source: The Conversation – UK – By Natasha Lindstaedt, Professor in the Department of Government, University of Essex
Over three years after Russia invaded Ukraine, the countries are finally meeting for direct peace talks in Istanbul. Vladimir Putin will be not be attending.
Ironically, given his no-show, it was Putin who suggested the peace talks instead of immediately agreeing to a proposed 30-day ceasefire. But like Russia’s 2024 presidential elections, from the outside the peace talks appear to be a total farce. Putin is not just stringing the international community along, he is also testing his “friendship” with the US president, Donald Trump.
Trump ran on a platform that he would he end the war in Ukraine quickly (in 24 hours), arguing that he was the only one with the gravitas and strength to handle the Russian leader. Yet Putin has repeatedly ignored Trump’s warnings.
Two days after Trump was inaugurated, the US president posted that new sanctions would be imposed on Russia if the conflict did not end quickly. Then in early and late March, Trump again threatened sanctions if there was no ceasefire. Most recently, on May 8, Trump called for a 30-day unconditional ceasefire, warning that violations would be met with sanctions.
Putin disregarded every threat, and Trump did nothing to follow through. The pattern seems to be repeating itself.
Now, Trump is trying to save face by claiming that peace talks are only possible if he and Putin meet in person. If that was the case, why didn’t Trump himself attend? He was only a four-hour plane flight away, making billion dollar deals in the Gulf. But as recently as Thursday, Trump floated the idea that he would only attend if “something happened”.
Given how important these peace talks should be, it’s odd that there’s so much confusion about why Putin and Trump are not attending. US special envoy Keith Kellogg stated that if Putin had attended, Trump would be there. Trump, meanwhile, has framed Putin’s snub the other way around, claiming the only reason Putin did not attend was because he was not there.
Meanwhile, Europeans had warned Putin that if he did not attend and the talks failed to produce a ceasefire, he would face tougher sanctions. But Putin was never going to attend these peace talks even as his Ukrainian counterpart, Volodymyr Zelensky, goaded him to do so by arriving in Ankara a few days ahead of time.
What could still happen?
Representatives from the Turkish, Ukrainian and American delegations were due to meet on the morning of May 16, followed by a session with Russia. Reportedly, Turkey is doing everything it can to get the two sides in the same room.
But hopes are not high for any breakthrough. The US secretary of state, Marco Rubio, said he has no expectations, and Zelensky believes Russia is not serious about achieving anything at these talks.
Though Putin was the one who suggested the peace talks “without preconditions”, he has sent a low-level delegation. Zelensksy promised to attend if Putin did, but has interpreted the Russian president’s absence as a sign of disrespect.
Given this backdrop, what can be achieved? Putin has sent his aide (and former minister of culture) Vladimir Medinsky, who Zelensky describes as a “theatre prop”. In Zelensky’s place, the Ukrainian delegation is led by Kyiv’s defence minister, Rustem Umerov.
Umerov has an impossible task, but will be trying to use the peace talks to take the first steps towards de-escalation. The only real winner in these talks is Turkey, which is playing a much bigger role than expected on the international stage as a power broker and mediator, since Putin didn’t come. Turkey also has good relationships with both Putin and Zelensky.
It’s certainly hard to take peace talks seriously when there is an awkward back-and-forth just about who is going to attend. And while Trump thinks peace is only possible through bilateral meetings between himself and Putin, it’s clear he can’t even influence Putin to show up to peace talks that the Russian president himself suggested.
This should give the world little confidence that Putin will agree to a 30-day ceasefire, Ukraine’s main proposal, let alone ever agree to any wider concessions. What’s not clear is what Trump is going to do about it.
Natasha Lindstaedt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
An attempt to make assisted dying legal in England in Wales continues to make its way through parliament, with MPs currently scheduled to have a final vote on the bill in June.
The bill has sparked both passionate support and strong opposition, raising vital questions: how would such a law work in practice? Who would deliver it? And what would it cost?
While much attention has focused mostly on the ethics of assisted dying, the government’s recently published impact assessment looks at the practical side and it deserves closer attention.
Of course, we shouldn’t base a decision about life and death solely on financial or logistical grounds. But if assisted dying is to become part of the law in England and Wales, we need to understand how it would work in reality. The report highlights a number of key challenges:
1. The medication question
The assessment draws mainly on data from 11 other jurisdictions, especially Oregon, where assisted dying has been legal for years. It found that the drugs used can lead to prolonged and unpredictable deaths, in part due to inconsistent drug availability.
However, the report doesn’t compare this to Switzerland, where assisted dying must be self-administered and is tightly regulated. There, a single barbiturate is typically used, leading to death within two to ten minutes depending on whether it’s taken orally or via injection. This raises questions about what kind of medications would be used in the UK and how reliably they would work.
2. Opt-outs: who will deliver the service?
Experience from countries like Canada shows that most doctors opt out of providing assisted dying. In Canada, over 5,000 assisted deaths were carried out by just 80 people. Similarly, in the US and New Zealand, entire institutions – especially palliative care services – have opted out.
Kim Leadbeater, the MP sponsoring the bill, has confirmed that it would not oblige hospices to participate. While this protects individual conscience, it may leave patients struggling to find willing clinicians or being discharged home to die.
3. Can the NHS cope with a new service?
The bill assumes the NHS would be responsible for delivering assisted dying. But is the system ready?
Switzerland uses volunteer doctors outside the healthcare system, which may be more sustainable. In the UK, oversight is expected to come from a panel including a senior judge or lawyer, a psychiatrist and a social worker.
However, the Royal College of Psychiatrists (RCP) has raised serious concerns, both about the role psychiatrists would play and whether there are enough professionals to fulfil that role. The RCP currently opposes the bill.
4. Funding: a two-tier system?
The impact assessment suggests assisted dying would be free at the point of delivery. Yet palliative care – the alternative end-of-life support – often receives less than 40% government funding, relying heavily on charity.
Could this create a two-tier system, where assisted dying is fully funded while palliative care remains under resourced?
5. Legal costs and challenges
If passed, the bill could trigger human rights challenges, particularly around mental capacity and access. Legal experts suggest several grounds on which it might be contested and these cases would need to be defended, incurring additional costs.
Families might also seek judicial review of a panel’s decision to permit a request for assisted dying. And public protests outside clinics or hospitals offering the service could require increased policing and security – all of which have financial and social implications.
This bill tackles one of the most morally sensitive issues in society. But if it is to succeed, and be implemented safely, it must be built on more than good intentions.
The government’s impact assessment lays out the many practical hurdles: medication protocols, workforce readiness, conscientious objection, legal protections, and funding disparities. These aren’t technicalities. They’re the framework that would determine whether assisted dying is accessible, safe and ethically delivered.
As the bill progresses, the debate must move beyond principle alone. The future of this legislation – and its real world impact – will depend on how well we address these deeply human, and deeply complex, practicalities.
Suzanne Ost has previously received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council and the British Academy for research that she has conducted.
Nancy Preston receives funding from Horizon Europe but not for her work on assisted dying. She is affiliated with European Association of Palliative Care where she Co-Chairs the Task Force on the role of palliative care professionals in supporting patients and families considering assisted dying.
Researchers have long know that environmental factors, such as air pollution and lack of green spaces, are linked to respiratory diseases such as asthma. But the joint impact of these various environmental factors on a person’s risk of developing asthma has, until now, remained unclear.
Our study is the first to reveal the joint impact of multiple environmental factors in urban areas, known as the urban exposome, on the risk of developing asthma. We found that air pollution, lack of green space and areas built primarily from concrete and asphalt are linked with significantly greater risk of developing the condition.
To conduct our study, we analysed data from 349,037 participants from across 14 cohorts in Europe. Participants ranged in age from birth to 70 years old.
We also linked three major external environmental factors – air pollution, the built-up environment (such as the amount of green space a person had access to or the amount of artificial light they were exposed to at night) and ambient temperature – to participants’ home addresses at the beginning of the study.
Participants were then grouped based on their exposure levels to the three major environmental factors. This allowed us to examine how exposure was linked to the onset of asthma and also calculate what a person’s risk of developing asthma would be if exposed to these environmental conditions.
We also accounted for factors that might have affected the results, such as a person’s age, sex, ethnic background, weight, socioeconomic status and whether they smoked (or were exposed to smoke).
We found that adults living in areas with high levels of air pollution had a 13% higher risk of developing asthma compared to people living in low pollution areas. Children living in high pollution areas had an 18% greater risk of developing asthma.
Adults living in areas that lacked green space had a 15% greater risk of developing asthma, while children had a 38% greater risk.
But one of the most significant findings of our study was just how much joint exposure to these environmental factors contributed to new asthma cases in both children and adults.
Three aspects of urban environments have a major influence of asthma risk. Holiday62/ Shutterstock
We found that the most hazardous urban environments were those characterised by high levels of air pollution, limited access to green spaces and those that were built primarily from concrete and asphalt. This increased an adult’s risk of asthma by 27% and a child’s risk of asthma by 35%.
Even areas without high levels of air pollution, but which were built primarily from concrete and asphalt and lacked green spaces, increased asthma risk by as much as 36%.
Urban planning and asthma risk
Our findings are generally consistent with what previous studies have found on the effects of urban environments, air pollution and green space on asthma risk. However, our study is the first to look at asthma incidence in both adults and children.
It’s also the first study to cover the entire life-course and illustrate how multiple aspects of the urban exposome affect asthma incidence in all age groups.
It underscores the critical role that urban environments play in shaping respiratory health. We calculated that a significant proportion of asthma cases – almost 12% – could be directly attributed to urban environments.
Exposure to a combination of air pollution, poor urban planning and extreme temperatures are a significant driver of asthma risk across a person’s lifespan.
With more people moving to cities every year, it’s essential that we rethink how we design and manage urban spaces to prioritise health and wellbeing. Cities can help prevent asthma and improve quality of life by introducing policies that aim to reduce air pollution, expand green spaces and design infrastructure that is more resilient to extreme temperatures.
Zhebin Yu receives funding from Swedish Research Council and Swedish Research Council for Health, Well-being and Welfare.
Erik Melen receives funding from the Swedish Research Council, the Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation and Region Stockholm. Melen has also received advisory board or lecture fees from ALK, AstraZeneca, Chiesi and Sanofi outside the present study.
Source: The Conversation – USA – By Richard Forno, Teaching Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, and Assistant Director, UMBC Cybersecurity Institute, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Reports that prominent American national security officials used a freely available encrypted messaging app, coupled with the rise of authoritarian policies around the world, have led to a surge in interest in encrypted apps like Signal and WhatsApp. These apps prevent anyone, including the government and the app companies themselves, from reading messages they intercept.
The spotlight on encrypted apps is also a reminder of the complex debate pitting government interests against individual liberties. Governments desire to monitor everyday communications for law enforcement, national security and sometimes darker purposes. On the other hand, citizens and businesses claim the right to enjoy private digital discussions in today’s online world.
The positions governments take often are framed as a “war on encryption” by technology policy experts and civil liberties advocates. As a cybersecurity researcher, I’ve followed the debate for nearly 30 years and remain convinced that this is not a fight that governments can easily win.
Understanding the ‘golden key’
Traditionally, strong encryption capabilities were considered military technologies crucial to national security and not available to the public. However, in 1991, computer scientist Phil Zimmermann released a new type of encryption software called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP). It was free, open-source software available on the internet that anyone could download. PGP allowed people to exchange email and files securely, accessible only to those with the shared decryption key, in ways similar to highly secured government systems.
Following an investigation into Zimmermann, the U.S. government came to realize that technology develops faster than law and began to explore remedies. It also began to understand that once something is placed on the internet, neither laws nor policy can control its global availability.
Fearing that terrorists or criminals might use such technology to plan attacks, arrange financing or recruit members, the Clinton administration advocated a system called the Clipper Chip, based on a concept of key escrow. The idea was to give a trusted third party access to the encryption system and the government could use that access when it demonstrated a law enforcement or national security need.
End-to-end encryption and backdoor access explained.
Clipper was based on the idea of a “golden key,” namely, a way for those with good intentions – intelligence services, police – to access encrypted data, while keeping people with bad intentions – criminals, terrorists – out.
Clipper Chip devices never gained traction outside the U.S. government, in part because its encryption algorithm was classified and couldn’t be publicly peer-reviewed. However, in the years since, governments around the world have continued to embrace the golden key concept as they grapple with the constant stream of technology developments reshaping how people access and share information.
Following Edward Snowden’s disclosures about global surveillance of digital communications in 2013, Google and Apple took steps to make it virtually impossible for anyone but an authorized user to access data on a smartphone. Even a court order was ineffective, much to the chagrin of law enforcement. In Apple’s case, the company’s approach to privacy and security was tested in 2016 when the company refused to build a mechanism to help the FBI break into an encrypted iPhone owned by a suspect in the San Bernardino terrorist attack.
At its core, encryption is, fundamentally, very complicated math. And while the golden key concept continues to hold allure for governments, it is mathematically difficult to achieve with an acceptable degree of trust. And even if it was viable, implementing it in practice makes the internet less safe. Security experts agree that any backdoor access, even if hidden or controlled by a trusted entity, is vulnerable to hacking.
For example, rather than embrace a technical golden key, a recent proposal in France would have provided the government the ability to add a hidden “ghost” participant to any encrypted chat for surveillance purposes. However, legislators removed this from the final proposal after civil liberties and cybersecurity experts warned that such an approach would undermine basic cybersecurity practices and trust in secure systems.
In 2025, the U.K. government secretly ordered Apple to add a backdoor to its encryption services worldwide. Rather than comply, Apple removed the ability for its iPhone and iCloud customers in the U.K. to use its Advanced Data Protection encryption features. In this case, Apple chose to defend its users’ security in the face of government mandates, which ironically now means that users in the U.K. may be less secure.
Apple pulled its advanced encryption service from the U.K. market rather than grant the U.K. government backdoor access.
In the United States, provisions removed from the 2020 EARN IT bill would have forced companies to scan online messages and photos to guard against child exploitation by creating a golden-key-type hidden backdoor. Opponents viewed this as a stealth way of bypassing end-to-end encryption. The bill did not advance to a full vote when it was last reintroduced in the 2023-2024 legislative session.
Opposing scanning for child sexual abuse material is a controversial concern when encryption is involved: Although Apple received significant public backlash over its plans to scan user devices for such material in ways that users claimed violated Apple’s privacy stance, victims of child abuse have sued the company for not better protecting children.
Even privacy-centric Switzerland and the European Union are exploring ways of dealing with digital surveillance and privacy in an encrypted world.
The laws of math and physics, not politics
Governments usually claim that weakening encryption is necessary to fight crime and protect the nation – and there is a valid concern there. However, when that argument fails to win the day, they often turn to claiming to need backdoors to protect children from exploitation.
From a cybersecurity perspective, it is nearly impossible to create a backdoor to a communications product that is only accessible for certain purposes or under certain conditions. If a passageway exists, it’s only a matter of time before it is exploited for nefarious purposes. In other words, creating what is essentially a software vulnerability to help the good guys will inevitably end up helping the bad guys, too.
Often overlooked in this debate is that if encryption is weakened to improve surveillance for governmental purposes, it will drive criminals and terrorists further underground. Using different or homegrown technologies, they will still be able to exchange information in ways that governments can’t readily access. But everyone else’s digital security will be needlessly diminished.
Encryption obeys the laws of math and physics, not politics. Once invented, it can’t be un-invented, even if it frustrates governments. Along those lines, if governments are struggling with strong encryption now, how will they contend with a world when everyone is using significantly more complex techniques like quantum cryptography?
Governments remain in an unenviable position regarding strong encryption. Ironically, one of the countermeasures the government recommended in response to China’s hacking of global telephone systems in the Salt Typhoon attacks was to use strong encryption in messaging apps such as Signal or iMessage.
Reconciling that with their ongoing quest to weaken or restrict strong encryption for their own surveillance interests will be a difficult challenge to overcome.
Richard Forno has received research funding related to cybersecurity from the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Defense (DOD), and the US Army during his academic career since 2010.
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